UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 

BULLETlNil91!. NO. 15 WHOLE NUMBER 462 



THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

OF CHINA AS RECENTLY 
LA RECONSTRUCTED 



K? 



By HARRY EDWIN KING 

VICE PRESIDENT OF THE PEKING UNIVERSITY 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1911 




Glass__LAjr2_i 
Book__ tCS— 



UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 

BULLETIN, 1911, NO. 15 WHOLE NUMBER 462 



THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 

OF CHINA AS RECENTLY 

RECONSTRUCTED 




By HARRY EDWIN KING O r T 



VICE PRESIDENT OF THE PEKING UNIVERSITY 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1911 



'b^ 












OOj^TEI^TS. 



Page- 
Letters of transmittal o 

lutroductiou 7 

Chapter I. — The growth of modern education iu China up to 1S9S 9 

Tung Wen College 9 

Auxiliary schools 10 

I Hsueh Kuan established — FoochoAv Arsenal naval schools 11 

Government telegraph college at Tientsin 12 

Opposition to reforms in education 13 

Science placed on a par with classical learning iu metropolitan 

examinations ^ 13 

Yung Wing and the Chinese Educational Commission 14 

Jlilitarj^ medical college in Tientsin 15 

'ientsin University 15 

4^an Yang College 16 

Western learning becomes popular 17 

Peking Reform Club 17 

Educational influence of Kuang Hsu IS 

Chapter II. — Education from 1898 to 1900 — Reforms and counter reforms_ 19 

The Emperor and his famous edicts 19 

Imperial University ordered to be established 20 

Wen Chang abolished 20 

Scholars seek western learning 21 

Emperor reproves his ministers for delaj^ 22 

Bureau of agriculture established — Agricultural schools 22 

Provision for national schools i 23 

Dr. Martin appointed president of the Imperial University 24 

•'Traitors in Camp," warned by edict 25 

Government translation bureau 25 

Chinese schools to be established abroad 25 

Training school for translators 20 

Coup d'etat 27 

Counter reforms of Empress Dowager 2S 

Chapter III. — Development of modern education from 1900 to 1906 .30 

Hanlin Academy to pursue new course of study 30 

Inducements offered returned students 31 

Provision for modern education system 33 

Effect of Boxer troubles ,33 

Provincial colleges in 1901-2 33 

Plans for abolishing old system of examinations 35 

The new educational system outlined 35 

Edict regarding Chinese students studying abroad .36 

Ministry of education created 37 

Commissioners sent abroad 39 

Tientsin University rebuilt 40 

Middle, primary, and night schools 41 

3 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter IV. — Controlling agencies of tlie educational system 43 

Ministry of education, departments 43 

Duties of ministry of education 44 

Provincial board of education — duties of commissioners 45 

Educational commissioners in foreign countries 46 

Supervisory boards of primary schools 47 

Lecture halls 48 

Chapter Y. — Primary education 49 

Kindergartens 49 

Lower primary schools — courses of study 50 

Higher primary schools : 54 

Summarj' of results of primary schools in Chihii Province 56 

Chapter YI. — Middle schools, provincial colleges, and universities 58 

Middle schools — where and how established 58 

Paotingfu middle school : 61 

Statistics of middle schools in Chihii Province 61 

Provincial colleges 62 

Chihii Provincial College 66 

Universities 67 

College of Chinese classics 69 

College of literature 70 

College of medicine and agriculture 71 

College of engineering and commerce 72 

Tientsin University and Shansi University 72 

Examinations and rewards of university graduates 74 

Chapter YII. — Normal, technical, and miscellaneous schools 75 

Normal schools and colleges 75 

Technical schools and colleges 79 

Miscellaneous schools 81 

Provincial colleges of languages at Nanking, Tientsin, Hupei, and 

Manchuria 83 

Law schools 84 

Medical schools 84 

Nobles' schools 85 

Military and naval "schools 86 

Customs training college — School of finance 86 

" Hsutsai Kuan ; " police high school ; detective school ; reformatory 

school, 87 

Model prisons — Indemnity scholarship school 88 

" Colleges for the preservation of the Old Learning " — Female educa- 
tion 89 

Chapter YIII. — Chinese students studying abroad 92 

Students in Japan 92 

Effect of the Chinese exclusion laws 95 

Students in the United Kingdom and Europe 95 

Students in the United States 96 

Imperial metropolitan examinations for returned students 98 

Summary , 101 

Bibliography 104 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Education, 
Washington^ D. C, Septeml)er 2, 1911. 
Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith a monograph on The 
Educational System of China as Recently Reconstructed, by Dr. 
Harry Edwin King, vice president of the Peking University. This 
monograph was originally submitted to the faculty of the depart- 
ment of literature, science, and the arts of the University of Michi- 
gan, and accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the 
degree of doctor of philosophy. Dr. King's information was de- 
rived largely from his personal observation during long residence in 
China, supplemented by translations of Chinese documents. This 
work was accomplished with the assistance of Chinese teachers and 
students, some of whom have since become associated with Dr. King 
as instructors in the Peking University. I recommend its publica- 
tion as a number of the bulletin of the Bureau of Education. 
Very respectfully, 

P. P. Claxton, C onhtryissioner. 
The Secretary of the Interior. 

5 



THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA AS 
RECENTLY CONSTRUCTED. 



INTRODUCTION. 

When we think of China, with a history dating back more than 
4,000 years, with a national literature not excelled by that of any 
other ancient people, a system of government conducted by her ablest 
scholars, chosen for more than 12 centuries by competitive examina- 
tions, we are not surprised to find her characterized by a spirit of 
self-confidence. By reason of her early development in culture and 
in government, she became the teacher of neighboring countries, and 
invariably compelled her victor to adopt her lang-uage, literature, 
customs, and laws, literally absorbing the conqueror and making him 
lose himself among her people. 

With her 4,277,170 square miles of territory, occupying geograph- 
icallj^ one of the most favored portions of the globe, having such a 
diversity of climate and such fertile soil, she has been able to provide 
not only the necessities but also many of the luxuries of life, and has 
made content her 400 millions of people. 

Secluded by sea, mountain, and desert from contact with outside 
nations, she has been left alone to develop her own social, moral, 
intellectual, and governmental institutions. To quote Capt. Brink- 
ley : " No other nation has preserved its type so unaltered ; no other 
nation has developed a civilization so completely independent of any 
extraneous influences; no other nation has elaborated its own ideas 
in such absolute segregation from alien thoughts; no other nation 
has preserved the long stream of its literature so entirely free from 
foreign affluents; no other nation has ever reached a moral and 
national elevation comparatively so high above the heads of con- 
temporary States." ^ 

China has a right to glory in her ancient civilization, which has 
produced some of the most learned sages the world has ever known. 
Her longevity has been due largely to the teachings of her ancient 
sages, her reverence for the past, her educational system, with its one 
object to provide able men for the State, and her civil-service ex- 
aminations, which determined who were worthy to rule. 

1 Oriental Series : Japan and China. Vol. X, p. 1. 



8 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP CHINA. 

Confucius warned his disciples to " walk in trodden paths," and 
these loyal disciples have proclaimed, " What Confucius teaches is 
true; what is contrary to his teaching is false; what he does not 
teach is unnecessary;" and Kang Hsi (1662-1723) also urged his 
people to " discard strange doctrines in order to glorify the orthodox 
teaching." 

The competitive-examination system has done more than anything 
else to make the officials and literati ojDpose the introduction of 
" western learning." Under the old educational regime China can 
not be said to have possessed any Government schools. All educa- 
tion was left to private effort, but literary attainment was decided by 
the Government through its system of competitive examinations, and 
rewarded by official recognition. Coming into forced contact with 
European powers, China has slowly discovered the fact that in order 
to preserve her national existence she must modifj^ her educational 
system, and instead of devoting all her attention, as formerly, to the 
study of the classics, she now seeks also to understand the literature, 
sciences, arts, laws, and governments of western nations. 

It is not the province of this thesis to enter into a discussion of the 
old system of education nor to attempt to treat the excellent educa- 
tional work done in the mission schools and universities — a work that 
has up to date been the most efficient of all educational work done in 
the Empire. It has been a great object lesson and a great factor in 
hastening on the new education in China. To it is due more than to 
any other cause the establishment of Government schools for girls. 
It has furnished many native teachers for the Government schools, 
and many of the presidents of the first Government colleges and 
universities have been men who had been engaged in missionary 
education. Among them are the well-known names of Drs. Martin, 
Tenney, Ferguson, Hayes, and Richards, and Messrs. Duncan and 
Soothili. 

We purpose first to trace the growth of the first national educa- 
tional institutions and the struggle over the introduction of modern 
education into China before the formation of the ministry of edu- 
cation. 

Second, to treat of the present educational system as outlined by 
the ministry of education. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE GROWTH OF MODERN EDUCATION IN CHINA 
UP TO 1898. 

China's contact with foreign nations, the misunderstandings and 
conflicts she encountered, ending often in unsuccessful wars, con- 
vinced her finally that she had need to learn from the western world. 

Dr. Martin tells us that " within less than a year from the close of 
hostilities in 1860 large bodies of Chinese troops might have been 
seen learning foreign tactics under foreign drillmasters on the very 
battle grounds where they had been defeated. Arsenals, well sup- 
plied with machinery from foreign countries, were put in operation 
at four important points, and navy yards were established at two 
principal seaports where native mechanics were taught the construc- 
tion of steam gunboats."^ 

The treaty of 1860 called into being the " tsung-li-yamen " or 
" foreign office." One of the provisions of the treaty required that 
all dispatches for the period of three years should be accompanied by 
a Chinese translation, thus giving the Chinese Government time to 
provide competent native interpreters. Almost immediately after- 
wards the yamen memoralized the Throne advocating the establish- 
ment of a school for the training of official interpreters. Now for 
the first time it dawned upon the minds of Chinese officials that 
unless they became conversant with foreign affairs, and understood 
foreign languages and literature, it would be impossible to protect 
the nation from becoming the victim of crafty imposition. This led 
to the establishment of the Tung Wen Kuan in Peking in 1862. 
Prior to this in 1861 Prince Kung had sought to secure as teachers 
Chinese competent to give instruction in foreign languages. Failing 
in this, he was forced to seek the aid of foreigners. The Tung Wen 
Kuan, though connected with the tsung-li-yamen, was placed under 
the direction of Mr. Robert Hart, the inspector general of maritime 
customs. An English department was first established, with a class 
of about 10 students. The next year French and Russian depart- 
ments were added, later a German department, and by 1899 a Jap- 
anese department also. During the four years following the estab- 
lishment of the Tung Wen Kuan, the " new education " had made 
such progress that the tsung-li-yamen again presented a memorial to 

iLore of Cathay, p. 16. 



10 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP CHINA. 

• 

the Throne in which occurred these words : " It is plain that it is 
impossible to do otherwise than to pursue the study of western knowl- 
edge." This memorial received the imperial sanction December 30, 
1866, and the school was raised to the rank of a college. The mem- 
bership, previously limited to 30, was now increased to 120. At first 
languages only had been taught, now a scientific department was 
added, and the chairs of chemistry, physics, mathematics, and astron- 
omy were established. International law was taught by Dr. W. A. P. 
Martin, who in 1868 had been called to that professorship, and in 
1869 was appointed the first president of the college — an office ably 
filled by him for 25 years. The progress made during that period 
was largely due to his scholastic attainments, his extensive transla- 
tions, and his executive ability, influencing its entire life of nearly 
40 years. 

In the beginning students were selected only from the Manchus or 
from Chinese families who had been adopted by the conquerors of 
the Mings in 1644. Later on the doors of the college were opened 
to members of the Hanlin Academy, but these supreme scholars of 
China scorned to sit at the feet of the west, and being supported by 
the president of the academy, who was also the Emperor's teacher, 
they haughtily refused to become members of the college. Unable 
to secure students from the higher literati, they had to be content 
with recruits of lower degree. 

In 1896 the full course of study extended over eight years. The 
first three were given exclusively to languages, and the remaining 
five . were devoted to securing scientific and general knowledge 
through the medium of those foreign languages they had pursued. 
It was not usual for a student to attempt more than one foreign 
language. Classes of about 30 students were formed, who were ex- 
pected to devote one-half of each day to Chinese and the remainder 
of the day to the language chosen and to scientific study. The col- 
lege was in session for the entire year, with the exception of a short 
vacation at Chinese new year and during a few days in the warmest 
part of summer. Sundays were holidays for the foreign teachers 
only. 

The college provided all its students with free tuition, food, and 
clothing, and in addition each received a monthly allowance from 
the Government; this amount was increased or decreased according 
to the student's proficiency in examinations. Written examinations 
were held at the end of each month, and examinations of three days' 
duration at the end of each year, the latter being always held in the 
presence of the ministers of foreign affairs. At each examination, 
monthly or yearly, prizes to the amount of from 40 to 60 taels were 
distributed as an encouragement to effort. Once in three years was 
held the " great examination " for determining the awarding of 



GEOWTH OF MODERN EDUCATIOlSr. 11 

official distinction. Receiving this distinction did not necessarily 
remove the student from the college. After performing his official 
duties at the yamen, which were usually but nominal, he was allowed 
to return to the college and continue his studies as a resident gradu- 
ate; but he must hold himself in readiness to fill any official post to 
which he might be appointed. 

In 1896 the faculty consisted of 4 native professors, 10 assistants, 
and 10 foreign instructors, including the president of the college. 
There were 120 students, averaging 30 years of age. Up to that time 
about 1,000 students had been enrolled in the college. 

Some of the students secured positions in Government schools 
and arsenals; two became tutors in English to the Emperor Kuang 
Hsii ; some became secretaries or interpreters to foreign embassies ; 
others were appointed as consuls or vice consuls, while at least four 
represented their Government abroad. 

There is no doubt but that Tung Wen College played an important 
part in helping forward the cause of modern education. 

Soon after the establishment of the Tung Wen College the tsung- 
li-yamen established two auxiliary schools. One was located at 
Shanghai, having two departments, one in French and the other in 
English, enrolling about 30 students in each department. The other 
school, established in 1864, was located at Canton, By imperial 
edict it was to furnish instruction in English and Chinese to 20 
Manchu and Banner boys. In 1870 this school sent 14 students to 
the Tung Wen College at Peking for further study. Of these, in 
1880, 5 had retired, 3 had been appointed abroad, and 6 were still 
in the college. Up to 1880 no more students had been promoted 
from that school to the college ; and these boys who had entered the 
school at 17 grew to manhood, married, and had families of their 
own, and were still pursuing their foreign studies. 

In 1897 Russian and Japanese departments were opened, and in 
1900 a French department was added. In 1904 there were 40 
students in the Russian, 37 in the Japanese, and 42 in the French 
department. 

This Tung Wen school was in 1903 amalgamated with another 
school under the name of I Hsueh Kuan. 

The Foochow Arsenal naval schools, which had their beginning 
in 1867, were very prosperous under the management of Mr. Prosper 
Giquel, and have supplied China with some of her best naval officers. 
In 1880 the English school had about 50 students divided between 
the naval and the mechanical branches. The course of four and 
one-half years included the subjects of English, analytic geometry, 
algebra, trigonometry, navigation, and geography. The students 
received a monthly stipend of $4. 



12 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

The French school enrolled about 40 students in four divisions. 
The subjects taught were French, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, 
trigonometry, analytical geometry, calculus, and mechanical engineer- 
ing. The students likewise received $4 per month. 

The Chinese Imperial Naval College at Nanking was established 
in 1890. During the first six years about 120 cadets had been enrolled, 
and in 1896 80 cadets were in attendance, averaging 19 years of age. 
Foreign instructors in navigation and engineering were employed, as 
well as several native assistants. The students were boarders and 
drew Government pay. English was taught and the college was 
doing good work, but after the war with Japan it received a new 
stimulus to progress. 

At Wuchang was established in 1892 the Government mining and 
engineering college of the Hupei board of mines. Its 20 students 
received instruction from 1 foreigner assisted by an able corps of 
native teachers. 

The Imperial Northern Government Telegraph College at Tientsin 
was established in 1879. Its superintendent up to recent date was 
Mr. C. H. O. Poulson. Native teachers were employed. In 1896 50 
students were enrolled, varying in age from 16 to 22. They were 
divided into four classes and received a monthly pay of from 3 to 10 
taels, according to their rank. Students entering with a good founda- 
tion in English and mathematics could complete the course of study 
in 4 or 5 years. During the first 16 years 300 students were sent out, 
having completed the entire course of study. 

Not a few of the more intelligent Chinese had been gaining some 
knowledge of mathematics and science through the medium of works 
that had been translated by the early Catholic missionaries, and there 
were among them those who were thirsting for more knowledge and 
felt that the entire educational system needed reorganization. The 
subject was widely discussed and bitterly opposed, as is shown by the 
memorials establishing some of the above-named schools. These 
memorials sternly repudiated the notion that they were seeking to 
introduce new ideas borrowed from foreigners, as appears from the 
following citation : " The idea that it is wrong to abandon Chinese 
methods and follow in the steps of Europeans may also be dilated 
upon. It is to be remarked that the germ of western science is, in 
fact, originally borrowed from the heaven-sent element of Chinese 
knowledge. The eyes of western philosophers, having been turned 
toward the east, and the genius of their men being minutely pains- 
taking and apt for diligent thought, they have succeeded in pursuing 
the study to new results. For these they have usurped the name of 
science brought from over the sea, but in reality their methods are 
Chinese methods. This is the case with astronomy and mathematics, 



GROWTH OF MODERN EDUCATION, 13 

and it is equally so with the other sciences. China has originated 
the methods which Europeans have received as an inheritance." ^ 

As evidence that it has not been considered a disgrace for a scholar 
to receive manual training in the application of the theories of sci- 
ence the}^ refer in the same documents to their sacred books. But 
they added the following apology: "The study now urged is the 
study of theory; that is to say, it is the scholar's duty to acquire 
knowledge through scientific analysis without compulsion upon men 
of letters and officers of government to take hold personally of me- 
chanical pursuits. Can doubt further exist ? " The new movement 
was making slow progress. The importance of wider dissemination 
of the new learning was making thinking men desirous of reforms. 
In 1869 the viceroy of Fookien memoralized that a knowledge of 
mathematics should be required for the Government civil-service 
examinations. The memorial failed to receive the royal sanction, and 
in 1875 the viceroy of Chihli, Li Hung Chang, made a second peti- 
tion, adding physical sciences. This likewise failed to receive the 
sanction of the Government. 

Meanwhile attempts were made to introduce mathematics into the 
provincial examinations, which doubtless showed that the new learn- 
ing was acquiring favor more rapidly with the literati of the country 
than with the Peking authorities. 

In 1874 an examiner of mathematics accompanied the commis- 
sioner of education to Hunan, but no candidates appeared. In 1885 
a few candidates were examined in Shantung, but it was not until 
1887 that the Government yielded, and by an imperial decree these 
subjects were added to those required at the metropolitan examina- 
tion. The following year, at the triennial examination held in 
Peking, for the first time in Chinese history students of science 
were placed on a par with those of classical learning. Sixty candi- 
dates presented themselves, only 32 of whom were considered ad- 
vanced enough to be admitted to the examination, and only 1 obtained 
the degTee. A writer of the time remarks : " No one can possibly 
overestimate the importance of the effect upon the future history of 
China. This first and only man promoted to the second literar}'" 
rank for his knowledge of science is the sure leader of a great host 
in days to come. The thin edge of the wedge has been driven into 
the competitive system, which in the end will rive asunder the old 
wall of Chinese conservatism, liberalizing the minds of the literati 
and setting them forward in the path of progress." - 

It was after the Tientsin massacre (1870) that the Chinese Govern- 
ment, through Tseng Kuo Fan's representations, consented to Yung 

1 " The new education in China," by L. W. Pilcher. The Chinese Recorder, 1889, pp. 
305-310. 

- November number of the Chinese Recorder, pp. 89, 90. 



14 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

Wing's plan to educate Chinese youth in the United States. It was 
during his undergraduate days at Yale (1850-1854) that he con- 
ceived the plan of organizing a Chinese educational commission. In 
August, 1871, by imperial edict, $1,500,000 were appropriated to 
send 120 students to the United States for 15 years. Yung Wing 
and an assistant were appointed commissioners in charge of them 
for that period. Four yearly installments of 30 students each, the 
youngest to be not less than 12 and the oldest not more than 15 years 
of age. They were selected from respectable homes, required to pass 
a medical examination, also an examination in Chinese, and in Eng- 
lish in case they had studied it. All candidates had to attend a 
preparatory school in Shanghai for at least one year before leaving 
for the United States. The parents were required to sign papers 
stating their willingness for their sons to go, and consenting to 
their remaining in the United States for 15 j^ears, and that the 
Government was not to be held responsible for any accident that 
might happen to any of them. The Government was to pay all 
their expenses while absent, to give them a suitable outfit, and to 
provide Clnnese teachers to instruct them in the Chinese classics while 
in the United States. The preparatory school for preparing these 
four installments was established at Shanghai under the supervision 
of Liu Kai Sing. Nine-tenths of the students came from the south of 
China. In the summer of 1872 the first installment reached the 
United States, and were distributed in families living near Spring- 
field, Mass. Before this, in 1871, Tseng Kuo Fan died and Li Hung 
Chang succeeded him on the educational commission. In 1874 Vice- 
roy Li recommended the building of a substantial headquarters for 
the Chinese educational commission in the United States, and the 
next year the new building was erected at Hartford and occupied. 

In 1876 Yung Wing, contrary to the advice of some of his friends, 
accepted the appointment of associate minister to the United States, 
Peru, and Spain. His last act in comiection with the educational 
commission was to make application to the United States Govern- 
ment to permit some of the Chinese students to enter the Government 
military and naval academies. He received the following reply: 
" There is no room provided for Chinese students." ^ 

For reasons, which it is not necessary to relate, the Chinese Govern- 
ment recalled these students in 1881. At that time the majority of 
them were either in scientific schools or in colleges, and all but two 
were undergraduates. 

In 1882 Dr. Yung Wing returned to China to try to persuade the 
Government to permit the older students to return to the United 
States and complete their studies, but in vain. 

iMy Life in China and America, p. 207. 



GROWTH OF MODEEN EDUCATION. 15 

For some time after their return to China, the students received 
no official recognition. Subsequently " about 1-1 were sent to each 
of the naval academies at Foochow and Tientsin. Over 20 were ap- 
pointed to the service of the imperial telegraph administration. 
Eight were placed in the viceroy's (Li Hung Chang) medical school 
at Tientsin, under the care of Dr. Mackenzie. About the same num- 
ber were sent to Kaiping, and also to the torpedo service at Taku. Of 
the remaining 28, 6 went back to the United States, about 10 were 
left in Shanghai, and the rest scattered here and there." ^ 

The tsung-li-yamen, unwilling to establish a medical college in 
connection with the Tung Wen College, appointed Dr. Dudgeon, of 
the London mission, Peking, professor of anatomy and physiology 
in the college. It was left for the viceroy, Li Hung Chang, to open 
the first Government medical college in China. In November, 1893, 
the military medical college was established in Tientsin, too late to 
be of any i^ractical help in the war that followed. 

In 1887 Li Hung Chang, through a suggestion of Mr. Detring, 
commissioner of customs, formulated the idea of establishing a uni- 
versit}^ in Tientsin. With funds contributed by both Chinese officials 
and Europeans a large building was constructed on the river bank 
below in the European settlement. Dr. Charles D. Tenney was called 
to the presidency, but for some reason Viceroy Li did not proceed 
further, and the building remained empty for eight years. It was 
not until 1895, after the war with Japan, and upon the promise of 
the customs taotai at Tientsin to finance the institution with funds 
from the telegraph administration, the China Merchants' Stean^ship 
Navigation Co., and the customs taotai's yamen, that imperial sanc- 
tion was given for the organization of the Tientsin University. Dr. 
Tenney, who during these years of waiting had been conducting a 
j)rivate school at Tientsin, now entered upon his duties as president, 
and Mr. Tsai Shao Chi, formerly a Yale student, became the first 
Chinese director. The Government at that time having no secondary 
schools, a preparatory department with a four-years' course in Eng- 
lish and elementary mathematics was organized in connection with 
the university to prepare students to enter the collegiate department. 
A four-years' course was arranged in the four schools of civil engi- 
neering, mechanical engineering, mining, and law. In order to 
organize classes without delay in these special departments, students 
who had made preparation in the private schools of Tientsin, Shang- 
hai, and the British Government schools of Hongkong were entered 
in the lower classes. The first class graduated in the early spring 
of 1900. 

With the Boxer outbreak the students were sent to their homes. 
Later came the seizure and occupation of the university buildings by 

^ Educational number, East of Asia Magazine, p. 112. 



16 THE EDUCATIONAL. SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

the German military forces, and the life of the first Tientsin uni- 
versity "U'as thus ended. 

The next important educational institution to be established was 
the Nan Yang College at Shanghai in 1897. The plan originated by 
Sheng Hsuan Huai was to found a college where students, having 
already received the elements of a Chinese education, could take a 
thorough course in English and western science, and at the same 
time prepare for the Government competitive examinations. An 
annual grant of 100,000 taels was subscribed by the Chinese Mer- 
chants' Steamship Navigation Co. and the Imperial Chinese Tele- 
graph Co., each giving 50,000 taels. These pledges having been 
confirmed in a memorial to the Throne, an imperial decree was issued 
authorizing the establishment of the college. Dr. John C. Ferguson, 
president of the Nanking University, became the first president, and 
was authorized to purchase a site and erect the necessary buildings; 
these were completed in 1899. The institution had three depart- 
ments, a primary, preparatory, and a commercial school, each with 
a three years' course of study. Mr. Lattimer, a former instructor 
in the college, has written : '"■ No graduate of the commercial school 
would find much difficulty in gaining admission to the freshman 
class of an American college after a year's study in the United 
States." ^ Since the resignation of Dr. Ferguson in the autumn of 
1901, the administration of ^he school has been entirely in the hands 
of the Chinese officials, though American teachers have formed a 
part, of the teaching staff. In 1905 the college was made a school of 
technology and commerce and placed under the control of the min- 
istry of commerce, and in April, 1907, it became an imperial poly- 
technic college under the administration of the ministry of posts and 
communication. 

During this period Chang Chih Tung attempted to institute some 
reforms hj introducing western education at Wuchang, the capital. 
Colleges of agriculture, language, mechanics, mining, and military 
science were organized. Professors were invited from America, 
Belgium, England, France, Germany, and Russia. Many of them 
were enthusiastic, expecting to organize modern colleges and teach 
according to modern methods. But the two Cornell University 
graduates who were called to conduct the agricultural college found 
that no provisions had been made for the college, and when, after 
long delays, the work was begun, it was hedged in on all sides by 
conservatism. The American instructors, though receiving good sal- 
aries, chafed under the restraints and, unwilling to fritter away their 
time, resigned. 

The disastrous defeat in the China-Japanese war convinced China 
that she must make some reforms in education or never regain her 

1 The South China Collegian. July 1, 1905, p. 123. 



GROWTH OP MODEEN EDUCATION. 17 

place as the first power in the east. Many of her literati, scholars 
having the highest degrees, sought instruction in western learning 
by attending missionary schools and colleges, by employing private 
teachers, by forming clubs, and through the private reading of all 
the translations of western books available. Even the Emperor, 
Kuang Hsu, who for years had been studying English, now became 
so interested in western science and learning that he had his eunuchs 
searching out and bringing to him all the translations of books on 
western learning that could be found, among them being the Bible, 
portions of which he is known to have read. Never before had there 
been such a demand in China for the new education. By 1896 all 
schools where western science and language were taught were over- 
crowded with pupils. Even young and inexperienced students found 
it easy to obtain lucrative positions as private teachers. At this time 
many Peking officials, some quite advanced in age, matriculated in 
the preparatory department of the Peking University for the pur- 
pose of beginning the study of the English language. Special 
classes were formed to accommodate them. The older men, thoagh 
famous for their Chinese learning, had passed the age when men can 
easily learn a foreign tongue. It was often not only amusing, but 
pathetic as well, to witness their vain efforts to speak the language 
distinctly. The great majority of these older men, finding the lan- 
guage so much more difficult to acquire than they had anticipated, 
after a few months of hard work, became discouraged and retired. 
Some persisted, and though never becoming fluent speakers, were 
able to make good Chinese translations from English. Excellent 
results were obtained by a number of the younger men, all of whom 
were Government graduates, some having the second degree (" chu 
jen," or master of arts) , and two were Hanlins (LL. D.) , members of 
the imperial academy. So anxious were these brilliant scholars to 
acquire a knowledge of western learning from an ^\merican teacher 
that they thought it no disgrace to sit side by side with boys their 
pigmies in classical learning ; a marked contrast to the Hanlins, who, 
in the sixties, had refused to study foreign languages in the Tung 
Wen College, 

There were, however, men of vision among the literati and officials. 
They saw that reforms alone could save their nation and the}'' sought 
to bring them about. In a short time a Chinese reform club, having 
at first a membership of about 30, was organized in Peking. Its main 
object was the translation of newspapers and books into Chinese. 
The newspapers were circulated among the Chinese officials that they 
might become acquainted with western methods and conditions. The 
books were the best that could be found on science, literature, and 
law, and were to be at the disposal of any who might desire to read 
them. It being contrary to Chinese law for any company of Chinese 
9561°— 11 2 



18 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP CHUSTA. 

to meet to discuss Government matters, in less than a month after 
the establishment of the club the Emperor was memorialized on the 
subject, and he caused the place of meeting to be sealed ; later on, re- 
ceiving another memorial in favor of the club, he restored it, but 
made it a Government institution, nominating his teacher. Sun Chia 
Nai, president, and retaining the former board of managers. The 
Emperor and many of the officials promised to give liberally toward 
its support, 

Reform clubs then sprang up all over China. Their membership 
consisted largely of the younger members of the literati; scholars 
who had been trained abroad or in the modern schools of China, and 
a few of the members had been in consular or diplomatic service 
abroad. 

The " Cassini convention," ^ the territorial advance of Germany, 
Russia, England, and France, the articles that filled the foreign news- 
papers and periodicals on the break-up of China, the partition of 
China among the European powers, and like questions of the day, 
aroused the Chinese as nothing had done before. They saw their 
helpless condition and realized that something must be done, and 
that soon. 

It was known throughout the Empire that the Emperor had been 
devoting all the time he could get to the study of those works that 
would both qualify him to rule wisely his people and to make prepa- 
ration to enter upon reforms that would place his country alongside 
the leading powers of the world. To show the influence of this study 
upon his people, we quote from Prof. Headland : " I doubt if any 
Chinese monarch has ever had a more far-reaching influence over the 
minds of the young men of the Empire than Kuang Hsu had from 
1895 till 1898. * * * The fever for reading the same books that 
Kuang Hsu had read was so great as to tax to the utmost the presses 
of the port cities to supply the demand, and the leaders of some of the 
publication societies feared that a condition had arisen for which they 
were unprepared. Books written by such men as Drs. Allen, Mateer, 
Martin, Williams, and Legge were brought out in pirated photo- 
graphic reproductions by the book shops of Shanghai and sold for 
one-tenth of the cost of the original work. Authors, to protect them- 
selves, compelled the pirates to deliver over the stereotype plates they 
had made, on penalty of being brought before the officials in litiga- 
tion if they refused. But during the three years the Emperor had 
been studying these foreign books, hundreds of thousands of these 
young scholars had been doing the same, preparing themselves for 
whatever emergency the studies of the young Emperor might bring 
about." 2 

1 In 1896, through this treaty, Russia secured from China territorial and railway con- 
cessions in Manchuria. 

- Court Life in China, pp. 132, 133. 



CHAPTER II. 

EDUCATION FROM 1898 TO 1900— REFORMS AND COUNTER 

REFORMS. 

In 1898 Emperor Kuang Hsu entered upon the greatest revolution 
in the history of China, by issuing his famous edicts, which em- 
bodied the great principles of all the reforms that have since been 
instituted in China. Memorials were sent in by men holding the 
highest rank and influence, advocating these reforms, and while 
Kang Yu Wei is accredited with originating the most sweeping of 
the reforms, yet we must remember that there were men of the type 
of Sun Chia Nai and Chang Chih Tung who were in full sympathy 
with the Emperor. In China's Only Hope, Chang Chih Tung 
advocates many of the radical changes that the Emperor hoped to 
institute. 

The Emperor, in replying to some of his old conservative ministers 
who were urging him to conform strictly to the ancient institutions 
and reject all suggestions of a new regime, says: "Let us ask what 
other country except our own is there that is laboring under such 
difficulties, because of being behind the times. * * * Our 
scholars are without solid and practical education; our artisans 
are without scientific instructors; when compared with other coun- 
tries we soon see the glaring difference between our strength and 
the strength of others; and when we compare the ready wealth of 
this Empire with that of other countries, the difference is still 
greater to our detriment. * * * Changes must be made to 
accord with the necessities of the times." ^ That he had no intention 
of ruthlessly casting aside all doctrines of the past, he goes on to 
say : " Let us, keeping in mind the morals of our sages and wise men, 
make them the basis on which to build new and more advantageous 
foundations." Then, advocating the necessity of reform, he con- 
tinues : " We must also select such subjects of western knowledge as 
shall keep us in touch with the times, and diligently study and prac- 
tice them in order to place our country abreast with other countries. 
Let us cast off from us the empty, impractical, and deceiving things 
which obstruct our forward progress, and strive with one-hearted- 
ness and energy to improve upon all things that we have learned; 

^ This and the following quotations are taken from The Emperor Kuang Hsu's Reform 
Decrees, 1898. Reprinted from The North China Daily News. 

19 



20 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OE CHINA. 

let US eliminate the crust of neglect that has accumulated on our 
system, and cast away the shacldes which bind us; in a word, let us 
evolve useful things out of those which hitherto have been useless, 
and let us seek able instructors to fashion the materials in our pos- 
session. With these objects in view, let us strive toward advance- 
ment and progress." 

On the same day, June 11, he ordered the establishment of a great 
university in Peking that should be a model for the capitals of the 
Provinces to copy, and commanded his ministers and the princes to 
provide speedily for its inception. After stating that " all who de- 
sire will be given all the privileges and instruction the new Univer- 
sity of Peking can provide," the edict closes with these final declara- 
tions : " We earnestly hope that all will eagerly take advantage of the 
modern education now 'open to them, so that in time we may have 
many able and willing helpers in the great and arduous work before 
us, of putting our country on a level with the best of the western 
powers. Let everyone listen to and obey these, our sincere and 
earnest words, and let it be Imown that this edict is specially issued 
to all our subjects." Two days later, June 13, Hsu Chih Ching, a 
recorder of the Hanlin Academy, recommended to the Emperor's 
favorable notice Kang Yu Wei, known as " Kang, the Modem Sage 
and Reformer," a third-class secretary of the ministry of works, as 
being a man " of deep learning and exceptional ability and progres- 
sive ideas." Dr. Arthur Smith says of him : " He had the welfare 
of .China deeply at heart, and had studied its conditions and the 
possible methods of reform until he had clear and definite ideas of 
what could be done and of what ought to be done." 

Kang had written two books. The Eeforms of Eussia and The Re- 
forms of Japan, which he sent to the Emperor. These were fol- 
lowed later by a memorial urging the Emperor to be firm and not 
delay bringing about reforms. Mr. Kang's introduction to his Im- 
perial Majesty was largely due to Weng Tung He, the Emperor's 
tutor, who had been devoting considerable attention to Mr. Kang 
and had become deeply impressed with his ability. June 16, Kang 
was granted an imperial audience, which is rej)orted to have lasted 
two hours, and to have so deeply impressed the Emperor with the 
needs and methods of reforms as to inspire him to issue his famous 
edicts of that summer. An edict Avas issued June 23 that abolished 
the " Eight-Legged Essay," called the " Wen Chang," which was 
the standard for Government examinations. " The Wen Chang is 
a style of composition of ancient and arbitrary origin which 
stretches the elastic thought upon a cruel rack. The eight legs 
upon which the essay stands are as rigid as if cut out of wood with 
a saw. The number of characters (words) and for the most part 



EDUCATION FROM 1898-1900. 21 

their meaning and purport in each leg must agree with those in the 
corresponding leg. The least slip would be fatal to success. To 
make these numbers correspond required the unceasing, untiring, 
and indefatigable labor of years, and the strain of the continued 
agonizing effort during the three days of incarceration in the damp, 
cheerless cell is something awful." ^ It was pointed out that in the 
time of Kang Hsi the Wen Chang had been abandoned and short 
essays substituted instead; that though this lasted but a short time, 
yet it made the reign celebrated for its number of learned and 
brilliant scholars who proved their worth in a practical manner; 
that they had the ability to search and compare ancient lore with 
that of their own times. It declared that learning had declined by 
scholars sticking to the classical style, that it had produced fraudu- 
lent practices in the system of examinations, that no man desired 
to be learned beyond the requirement for the degree for which he 
wished to be examined. " To this deplorable state have we now 
come. But to attain solid and practical education, adequate to the 
times we live in, we must cast away all empty and obsolete customs, 
nor can we advance true talent by following the old regime." In 
the future all the examinations for the chu jen and chin shih are to 
be conducted according to the new requirements. "We have been 
compelled to issue this decree because our examinations have de- 
generated to the lowest point, and we see no other way to remedy 
matters than by changing entirely the old methods of examinations 
for a new course of competition. Still scholars must not forget to 
study the Confucian analects and the classics as the root of their 
education, from whence they are to write short practical essays 
suitable to the times we live in. Let us all try to reject empty and 
useless knowledge which has no practical value in the crisis we are 
passing through." 

In commenting upon this decree, Dr. Arthur Smith writes : " By 
a stroke of his pen the progressive and enlightened young Emperor 
revolutionized the stream of Chinese thought, long since semistag- 
nant, and opened new channels. * * * There is a strong proba- 
bility that if there had been no political counteraction the new 
scheme might have been put into operation without serious opposi- 
tion and with far-reaching and beneficent effects, for there was 
already a large minority of thinking men throughout the Empire 
who profoundly felt the necessity of a change of some sort and would 
have gladly followed an imperial leader. 

•' It is true that not a few foreigners ignored or decried the reform 
movement as the mere effervescence of a handful of brainless enthu- 
siasts, whose zeal outran their knowledge — dreamers, not practical 

1 The Educational Conquest of the Far East, p. 135. 



22 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

men. But there are others whose occupation gave them ample oppor- 
tunity of obtaining incontestable evidence, who affirm that it was a 
national and intellectual movement that permeated the Provinces and 
moved the mind of the nation. * * * A renaissance had begun." ^ 

Immediately after the publication of this decree telegrams from 
the most distant Provinces of the Empire began to arrive at Peking 
University from students wishing to matriculate and secure accom- 
modation in our university dormitories. Hanlin and chu jen came 
to have outlined courses of study for them to pursue at the university. 
Private schools of foreign science and literature were opened in Pe- 
king and other cities. Scholars came offering me large salaries if 
T would take charge of their schools, and when they found they could 
not secure my services, begged me to engage them instructors from 
abroad. Never can I forget those happy, enthusiastic students, their 
eyes sparkling as they told me of the Emperor's edicts and revealed 
to me their future plans of study. How hopeful they were for the 
future of their country ! Surely " their ideas were changed, and 
their ideals were changing. This reform movement shook the Em- 
pire." ^ In a month's time some of these students were in hiding to 
escape the vengeance of the Empress Dowager. 

On the 26th of June a decree was issued reproving the ministers 
and princes for delaying to make reports of plans for the new uni- 
versity, and commanding " all concerned to hasten on with their 
consultations and report with all speed," with " no more unmeaning 
delays in the matter." Following this is a decree threatening pun- 
ishment to all who in future delayed to carry out the imperial com- 
mands. A bureau of agriculture was established by imperial decree 
on July 4, and persons able to do so were commanded to translate 
western books on agriculture, which were to be used as textbooks in 
the agricultural schools and colleges soon to be established. On 
September 12 a decree provided for agricultural schools to be modeled 
after the Kiangyin school. July 6 a memorial of Hu Ping Chih, 
governor of Shansi, suggested changing the military ^examinations 
and allowing graduates of the newly established western-learning 
schools to compete for the chu jen and chin shih. The ministry 
of war and the tsung-li-yamen were commanded to deliberate and 
report on the same. The day following a decree virtually established 
patent and copyright laws for China, and rewards were to be given 
those writing practical and useful books and to those inventing arti- 
cles of use, machinery and the like. The foreign office was com- 
manded to draw up the necessary rules and regulations. On July 13, 
the yamen's report having been made and accepted, the scheme was 
put into operation. On July 11 appeared an edict concerning educa- 

1 China in Convulsions, vol. 1, pp. 136-137. 

2 Ibid., p. 138. 



EDUCATION FROM 1898-1900. 23 

tion of the greatest importance, which looked toward the establishing 
of a national system of modern schools for the joint study of Chinese 
and western literature and science. Provisions were to be made for 
establishing schools and colleges in the provincial capitals, prefec- 
tural cities, departmental and district cities, all to lead up to the 
imperial university at Peking, All the rules and regulations for 
governing these institutions were to be furnished by imperial uni- 
versity authoritieSj and the rules and regulations were conmianded 
to be observed. 

All schools which had been established by public subscriptions, 
such as charity schools or local public schools, were to introduce 
western studies into their curriculum. The educational funds were 
to come from the telegraph administration, the China Merchants' 
Steamship Navigation Co., the Wei Sing Lottery at Canton, and 
perquisites of local and petty officials which had recently been turned 
over to the Government ; also rewards were to be given persons mak- 
ing any public subscriptions toward the establishment or support of 
schools or colleges. Provision was made for translation bureaus for 
the translation of foreign books into Chinese, which were to be dis- 
tributed among the schools for the use of the pupils. To save ex- 
penses, all temples belonging to the people not recorded by the min- 
istry of rites were ordered turned into schools for the instruction and 
spread of western and Chinese learning. "By advocating reforms 
in this direction the minds of the masses will be enlightened by edu- 
cation, and whatever they may learn will be of the useful and practi- 
cal kind, and thus our ambition to nourish talent and ability for the 
good of our Empire shall be accomplished. Let this edict be dis- 
tributed far and wide for the information of all our subjects." 

July 16 the Emperor accused his conservative ministers, delaying 
the carrying out of his decree, of ingratitude for the honors conferred 
upon them, and warned them that if in the future he found the same 
laziness in aiding him in his attempts at reforms they should bear 
the weight of his righteous indignation. 

July 20 a decree proclaimed the regulations for the new examina- 
tions. Calligraphy was no longer to hold such importance in the 
examinations. "What we really aim at now is to give a practical 
education to our scholars, and hereafter successful candidates for 
literary degrees will not be selected for their fine penmanship, but 
for their practical knowledge of the subjects in which they shall be 
examined in future." The ministrj^ of rites was given the permission 
to recommend to the Emj^eror any subject that they deemed necessary 
to be incorporated in the examinations. The Emperor, July 25, com- 
manded copies of Chang Chih Tung's Essays on Exhortations to 
Study, to be distributed by the grand council to the various viceroys 
and governors with instructions to reproduce as many copies as 



24 THE EDUCATIONAL, SYSTEM OF CHIlJA. 

j)Ossible for dissemination among the students and scholars of the 
country.^ The establishment of schools and colleges as feeders to 
the imperial university was ordered by a decree of July 29. August 
4 five preparatory schools were ordered established in the city of 
Peking to prepare chu jen, chin shih, and Hanlin, living outside of 
the city, for their entrance examinations into the new university. 
On the 9th of the same month an outline of the scope of work to be 
done in the imperial university, with regulations and rules modeled 
after those of the Japanese and European universities, was presented 
by Sun Chia Nai, the director general of the university, and approved 
by the Throne. A site was selected and Dr. W. A. P. Martin was 
appointed president of the imperial university. " In recognition of 
his previous services," says the edict, "and to encouragahim to further 
effort, we hereby grant him the brevet button of the second rank as 
a special honor. The board of civil appointments is commanded to 
take note of this." ^ Sun Chia Nai memorialized the Throne, urging 
the establishment of a Government newspaper, citing that it would 
be " similar to the ancient custom of officials calling upon the people 
for i^oems and literary essays in order to find out the thoughts filling 
the minds of the masses at the time under them." He goes on to 
suggest that " it will be most important to grant liberty and license 
to newspapers to write freely and succinctly on all topics whether 
advantageous or disastrous to the country, thereby giving warning 
notes and assisting those in power to know how to remedy matters 
and the like. These newspapers, moreover, could translate the news 
and .editorials of foreign newspapers for the enlightenment and 
knowledge of officials and merchants, students and people, of what 
is going on in other countries. Such newspapers would then be more 
than valuable not only to local administration but also to enlighten 
all as to what is proper in regard to foreign intercourse." The me- 
morialist further suggested that money be set aside for the support 
of this newspaper in the future. The memorial was approved, and 
the Chinese Progress, published at Shanghai, was made the Govern- 
ment official organ and money set aside for its future needs. Viceroys 
and governors were commanded to secure subscriptions from " all 
civil and military officers under their several jurisdictions, various 
bureaus, colleges and schools, in fact all who wished to subscribe to 
the Chinese Progress newspaper, and send said lists to the Govern- 
ment book-printing bureaus." Not only was liberty granted all 
newspapers, but they were commanded " to write broadly and plainly 
and in a liberal spirit on all subjects affecting the welfare of the 
Empire; * * * j^^j. should they refrain from writing boldly 
against all frauds and misgovernment, thereby preventing us from 

1 China's Only Hope. 

2 This honor requires Dr. Martin to be addressed as " ta jen," or " your excellency." 



EDUCATION FEOM 1898-1900. 25 

learning the exact truth and facts. Kang Yu Wei was requested to 
codify regulations and rules for the guidance of editors of news- 
papers in accordance with those governing editors in foreign coun- 
tries, which were to be " sent to Sun Chia Nai, who shall then present 
the same for our approval." 

The following day the Emperor issued a long decree informing his 
people of his "heart's desires," urging them to comprehend his re- 
forms and to give him their loyal support. Eealizing that there were 
" traitors in the camp," he warns them : " Beware how you put on a 
false mask, pretending on your face to be eager to embrace the practi- 
cal way but in your hearts determining to disobey our commands, 
and thereby thwarting our most earnest wishes. We can not forgive 
such hypocrites, who will only cause delay and embarrassment to our 
schemes for our country's welfare." He then points to Chen Pao 
Chen, governor of Hunan, as worthy of imitation. " Observe how 
earnestly he has worked for reform, see how by constant effort he 
has, as it were, hammered the advantages of practical modern reform 
into the minds of the gentry and literati of that Province and has 
brought them to join him in his efforts in that direction. You should 
all strive to follow that governor's practical earnestness and diligent 
energy." Young men of ability are needed to fill important posts, 
and the high ministers are commanded to search out and " recom- 
mend to us those who are really brilliant and practical in their talent 
and we will at once appoint such to posts where they may assist us 
in our great scheme of reform; but we shall not hesitate to punish 
those who recommend to us useless men. We see no other way to 
benefit the country unless we set earnestly to work in changing the 
present stagnant state of affairs, and you all must sympathize with 
our troubles and extreme difficulties in getting things done in the 
proper way." 

On the same day commands were given Wang Wen Shao and 
Chang Yin Huan to look after the establishment of efficient schools 
for training men in the administration of railways and mines, also 
schools for the education of men competent to command the navy. 

August 16 a Government translation bureau was authorized to be 
established at Shanghai, with Liang Chi Chao, M. A., ex-editor of the 
Chinese Progress Magazine, in charge, " for putting into Chinese 
western works on science, arts, literature, and textbooks for schools 
. and colleges," especially for supplying the needs of the imperial uni- 
versity. Printing machines and American textbooks were to be pur- 
chased, and appropriations were made to meet the expense of the 
bureau. 

August 19 a decree approved the joint memorial of the Viceroy 
Chang Chih Tung and Governor Chen Pao Chen, of Hunan, con- 
cerning the mode of procedure to be observed in Government ex- 



26 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP CHUSTA. 

animations, and commanded the board of rites (li pu) to notify all 
provincial high authorities to make the necessary changes in the 
curriculum of studies in all the schools and colleges in accordance 
with the accepted regulations. The palace examinations for the 
Hanlin degree were for the time being abolished. The next day the 
ministry of war were commanded to make suggestions for reforms 
in the military examinations. August 21, as a result of sugges- 
tions made by Kang Yu Wei, embodied in a memorial sent to the 
Emperor, all viceroys and governors were commanded to establish 
in each of their respective Provinces a branch bureau of agriculture, 
arts, and commerce, and to report by telegraph the date of its 
establishment. On the same day it was ordered that " ministers 
and consuls abroad should establish schools for teaching Chinese 
literature to the sons of Chinese doing business in foreign countries, 
especially in the British Empire and Japan," and that the ministers 
to Great Britain and France should engage competent interpreters 
and put into Chinese the most important books on science of gov- 
ernment, textbooks for schools, and the like, for the instruction of all 
officials in the Empire, and great care should be taken that they 
retain elegance and clearness in diction, and keep to the strict mean- 
ing of the originals. Such books were to be from time to time 
presented by the tsung-li-yamen to the Emperor for perusal. 

August 26, through the memorial of the grand secretary. Sun 
Chia Nai, Liang Chi Chao, M. A., was granted permission to estab- 
lish a training school for translators in Shanghai. On the same day 
the 'Emperor severely reprimanded the two viceroys, Liu Kun Yi 
and Tan Chung Lin, of the Liang Kiang (including Kiangsu, An 
Hui, and Kiang Si), and Liang Kuang (including Kuangsi and 
Kuang tung) Provinces, for delay in carrying out the reforms as 
commanded, and hereafter they, according to edict of the 27th of 
August, are to reply by telegrams. He urged Jung Lu, viceroy of 
Chihli, to be the first to institute reforms as an example to others. 

September 8 a medical college, to be under the jurisdiction of the 
imperial university, was ordered established. 

September 12 provision was made for the 2,000 former directors 
of studies in the prefectural and district cities, who had been thrown 
out of employment by the abolition of the Wen Chang and the 
establishment of modern schools throughout the Empire ; these men 
were to be appointed tutors of Chinese classics in the new colleges 
and schools. On the same day imperial sanction was given for the 
establishment of a newspaper in Peking after the model of the 
Chinese Progress. In another edict, of the same day, the Emperor 
again explains the need of the reforms he is instituting. He would 
have his people know that his entire thought is for the good of the 
nation, that as western learning has brought happiness and prosperity 



EDUCATION FKOM 1898-1900, 27 

to other lands, so he would institute reforms, that his people might 
enjoy the same blessings. He would have them appreciate the danger 
of their situation. " The nations around us are gathering about us ; 
they have come to take away what we can not keep ; we are trying 
to prevent this; * * * we are fighting hard to conquer in order 
to bestow the highest blessings upon our beloved children." He com- 
manded that all the reform edicts since June 11 should be printed and 
read by the officials to all the people, believing that when once the 
whole people understood the benefits accruing from these reforms 
that they themselves would work to carry them out. " Then will we 
have a strong China and a happy and contented people." 

On September 19 provision was made for a compendium of the 
treaties to be printed for future distribution among all subordinate 
officers in the Provinces, so that they might study them thoroughly 
and so not display ignorance when called upon in regard to inter- 
national matters. Provision was made for establishing middle schools 
in the capital to feed the imperial university. The students were 
all to be Government graduates selected by competitive examinations, 
and funds were provided for their support. Permission was also 
granted to establish a college of western learning in Peking " for the 
special education of sons of metropolitan officers from Sze Chuan 
and for such licentiates from Sze Chuan as may be staying in the 
capital." The college was to be supported by private funds already 
subscribed. 

On September 21 occurred the coup d' etat. The Emperor became 
a prisoner, never again to sit on the throne. The Empress Dowager 
seized the regency, which she held until the day of her death, and 
reactionary influences for a time gained full sway. Some of the 
reformers were executed, degraded, or banished, while others sought 
safety in flight or concealment. Of all the reforms of that summer 
the imperial university alone withstood the storm of reaction. It 
had a capital of 5,000,000 taels, but the president had scarcely had 
time to organize the institution, secure a competent faculty, and 
collect 200 or 300 students, before all were dispersed by the Boxer 
uprising. Later on all were relieved of their offices by the Chinese 
chancellor. 

On September 21 the Chinese Progress and other official news- 
papers were suppressed, " because," as expressed by the edict, " they 
offer no advantages * * * and will only be instruments to stir up 
discontent and restlessness. * * * The Peking Imperial Uni- 
versity is allowed to remain, but those schools intended to be estab- 
lished in prefectural, subprefectural, and district cities are com- 
manded to be held in abeyance." The edict authorizing the use of 
temples, monasteries, and nunneries for school purposes " is hereby 
revoked and the present inmates allowed to remain there as usual." 



28 THE EDUCATIOaSTAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

On the 9th of October, by edict, the Empress restored the composi- 
tion of Wen Chang at the literary examinations and returned " to 
the usual methods instituted by our ancestors," which were to be ob- 
served in future. " The system of special recommendation of men 
of learning and talent recently inaugurated is also prohibited from 
this day. * * * As newspapers serve only to excite the masses 
to subvert the present order of things, and the editors thereof are 
composed mainly of the dregs of the literati, no good can be served 
by the continuance of these dangerous instruments against the public 
peace. We hereby command our viceroys and governors of Provinces 
to suppress and confiscate all newspaper offices within their juris- 
diction, to arrest the editors concerned, and to have them punished 
to the utmost extent of the laws. * * * The labors of the head 
bureau of agriculture, commerce, and the arts at Peking, having been 
so far abortive, there appears to be no necessity for its existence 
any further in the capital, and we, therefore, hereby abolish that 
institution." 

October 11, feeling secure on the Dragon Throne, she began her 
edicts by using the first person singular, as " I, the Empress Dowager, 
hereby issue the following decree." On this date was issued a pro- 
scription against all reform clubs and similar associations, claiming 
their object was not to exhort men to be good and virtuous, but 
primarily to disturb the peace, and she commanded the viceroys and 
governors of the Provinces " to search diligently for members of 
these associations and punish them according to their respective 
respbnsibilities as chiefs or followers." The sentence against chiefs 
and principal members of secret societies (which the above were 
not) was immediate decapitation, while the less responsible were 
usually banished. Their property was to be confiscated to the Gov- 
ernment. No leniency was to be shown, and "traitors will then 
learn to fear and tremble when they see their companions thus 
punished." At the same time Jung Lu was made the supreme head 
of all the military forces guarding Peking, and the power of life 
and death over them was conferred upon him by edict of the Empress 
Dowager. 

November 1 she proclaimed her love for things medieval by restor- 
ing the old order of affairs in the military examinations. " I, the 
Empress Dowager, am of the opinion that, as the military examina- 
tions of students for degrees by the lifting of heavy stone weights, 
manipulations of the great sword, and archery on horseback and on 
foot, are merely a form to go through in order to obtain the three 
degrees — chin shih, licentiate, and chu jen — and have nothing to do 
with service in the army ; this form should be still retained in mili- 
tary examinations, and I hereby command that viceroys and gov- 



EDUCATTON FROM 1898-1900. 29 

eriiors and other officers follow the old order of things hitherto 
existing." 

On the 13th of November the orthodox way of conducting the 
literary examinations was restored, as indicated by the following 
quotations from the edict : " I, the Empress Dowager, Tze Hsi 
Tuan Yu * * * to set at rest, once for all, the present uncer- 
tainty that has been caused by the Emperor's recent reform meas- 
ures in the above direction,'^ now as the Empire has always pros- 
pered and flourished under the old regime * * * there is in- 
deed no necessity for making any changes in the curriculum of 
literary examinations that has hitherto always obtained." The edict 
commands all literary examiners and literary chancellors and in- 
tendent graduates to " keep to the orthodox way." This retrograde 
policy culminated in the Boxer outbreak, which nearly wrecked the 
nation and made the Empress a fugitive. After her return to power 
she cast her lot with the progressives, she reenacted and enlarged 
upon many of Kuang Hsu's edicts, and started the country again on 
a great work of educational reform. 

^ Concerning the abolishing of the Wen Chang (" Eight-legged Composition "). 



CHAPTER III. 

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN EDUCATION FROM 
1900 TO 1906. 

A decree of June 5, 1901, granted the memorial of Sun Chia Nai, 
president of the Hanlin Academy, who complained that the members 
of the academy, instead of studying such subjects as would prepare 
them for appointments abroad and other Government offices, spent 
their time in trivial matters, such as composing poetry and other 
things which to-day are perfectly useless, and suggested that they 
devote themselves to the study of the principles of government, 
mathematics, chemistry, and other technical subjects; and also that 
each member should be allowed to select any such subject as he might 
desire, and furthermore that he be permitted, if he desired, to enter 
the Pei Yang Ta Hsueh Tang, Tientsin University,^ or the Nan Yang 
College. The memorial being granted, Sun Chia Nai was ordered to 
draw up a list of subjects to be studied. 

July 8 of that year the Empress Dowager issued a decree com- 
manding all Chinese diplomatic ministers to keep a lookout for 
young Chinese, sons of merchants, who had shown special ability and 
talent while studying in schools and colleges in foreign countries 
and had graduated with honor, and possessed diplomas in their 
various professions. These young men were to be sent to China to 
undergo an official examination, and one of the three Chinese degrees 
is to be conferred upon each according to the extent of knowledge 
shown by the examination. Strictest impartiality in selecting these 
men was to be observed. The following month, August 29, she 
reissued the substance of Kuang Hsu's edict abolishing the wen 
chang in the examinations for literary degrees. She also abolished 
the old examination for military degrees, and September 11 com- 
manded that military schools on a modern basis be established 
throughout the Empire, and as there are military schools in Tientsin, 
Nanking, Wuchang, and Chinan, the Viceroys Li Hung Chang, Liu 
Kun Yi, Chang Chih Tung, and Yuan Shih Kai were ordered to 
lose no time and draw up regulations for the new military schools. 

September 14 she issued the great edict, which commanded all the 
provincial shu yuan or examination agencies in the capital cities to 

1 The Tientsin University was not reopened until April, 1903. 
30 



DEVELOPMENT OP MODEEN EDUCATION. 31 

be turned into ta hsueh tang or universities modeled after the im- 
perial university at Peking; in every fu and chou there was to be 
established chung hsueh tang, or middle schools, and in every hsien 
or district hsiao hsueh tang, or elementary schools, while many yang 
hsueh tang, or primary schools, were to be established in larger num- 
bers. The course of study was to include the Chinese classics (four 
books and five classics), Chinese history and principles of govern- 
ment, and foreign science. 

Three days later was published the edict regulating the sending 
of students to be educated abroad, " Commanding the viceroys and 
governors of other Provinces of the Empire to follow the example 
of Viceroys Liu Kun Yi of the Liang Kiang, Chang Chih Tung 
of the Hu Kuang, and Kuei Chum of Szo Chuan, in sending young 
men of scholastic promise and ability abroad to study any branch 
of western science or art best suited to their abilities and tastes, so 
that they may return in time to China and place the fruits of their 
knowledge at the service of the Empire. Upon the return of a stu- 
dent from abroad with his diploma, proving the completion of his 
studies, he may present himself before the viceroy or governor and 
literary chancellor of his native Province for examination, and, if 
approved of, may then be recommended to the ministry of foreign 
affairs for employment, and subsequently memorialized to the Throne 
for promotion by said ministry. The various expenses of the educa- 
tion abroad of said students shall be paid by the viceroys or gov- 
ernors of the young men's native Provinces, on account of the 
imperial exchequer. Any student desiring to go abroad to study 
at his own expense may obtain an official dispatch from his viceroy 
or governor introducing the said student to the Chinese minister 
accredited to the country where the said student wishes to obtain 
his education, requesting said minister to take charge of the young 
men and render any needful help required. These private students 
may, if they so desire, be treated on the same privileged terms as are 
to be accorded those who have been sent abroad at Government 
expense, and may also be granted literary degrees of chu jen (M. A.) 
or chin shih (Ph. D.), like the others, should they prove their knowl- 
edge of Chinese literature equal to the attainment of such high 
degree." 

Yuan Shih Kai in 1901 secured the services of Dr. W. M. Hayes 
as president of the provincial college to be established at Chi Nan 
Fu, the capital of Shantung Province. Dr. Hayes drew up a system 
of rules and regulations for the college and the preparatory schools 
of the Province, which were to be under the control of the authorities 
of the college. His Excellency Yuan memorialized the Throne 
suggesting that a provincial college should be located at Chinanfu, 
a preparatory school for the university also should be located at the 



32 THE EDUCATIOaSTAL, SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

capital, and as soon as possible other preparatory schools should be 
located in the fu and hsien cities. Annexed to the memorial was a 
copy of the rules and regulations. An edict of November 25 ap- 
proved Yuan Shih Kai's scheme and ordered the cheng wu chu to 
make copies of Viceroy Juan's memorial and his regulations for col- 
leges and schools and send to each viceroy, governor, and literary 
chancellor for their information, expecting them to model after the 
colleges and schools of Shantung. The cheng wu chu was also com- 
manded to consult with the board of rites as to rewards and promo- 
tions to be bestowed upon successful students in the future. A report 
with regard to new methods of education and the bestowal of liter- 
ary degrees upon graduates was soon made to the Throne, and on 
December 5 the following decree appeared : " (graduates of the lower 
schools, of promise and ability, are to be sent to the middle schools 
to complete a course of higher study ; and graduates from the latter, 
selected for their talents and ability, are to be sent to the colleges 
of their native Provinces to go through another course of study. 
After these have graduated from their respective colleges they are 
to be styled " students of the superior class," and are then to be thor- 
oughly examined by their own viceroys or governors and literary 
chancellors, and the most promising are to be granted passports to 
go to Peking for reexamination at the Peking University, after 
which they are to await an imperial decree bestowing upon them the 
literary degrees of chu jen, or M. A., and kung sheng, or senior licen- 
tiate. The latter are then to remain and again compete at the next 
examinations for the chu jen degree. Those who have obtained their 
chu jen degree are to again undergo another strict examination at the 
Peking University, and the most promising are to be sent by the said 
university authorities to the board of rites. The said board will 
memorialize the Throne, asking that some high ministers of the court 
be appointed to hold a special examination of these chu jen candi- 
dates, and a recommendation will then be presented to the Throne 
asking for the granting of the doctor's degree (chin shih) to the 
successful students. An examination of the latter will then be held 
in one of the throne halls, after which the successful candidates are 
to be introduced to the Throne, when either the grade of Hanlin 
bachelor or secretaries of the six boards or secretaries of the grand 
secretariat will be bestowed upon them." This edict again commands 
that Yuan Shih Kai's recommendation for schools and colleges is 
to be followed, first, in the provincial college at the capital; second, 
in middle schools ; and, third, in lower schools. 

January 10, 1902, a decree was issued commanding members of the 
Hanlin Academy to diligently study ancient and modern history and 
politics, also western learning, in order that they may be of future 
use to the Government. The chancellor of the academy is com- 



I 



DEVELOPMENT OF MODEEN EDUCATION, 33 

manded to examine them every five months in their studies and report 
the results to the Throne. 

On December 1, 1902, a decree states that though the " won chang " 
has been abolished, the examinations and the short essays on cur- 
rent topics used at the recent examinations for the chu jen degree 
does not qualify them for Government service ; and it is decreed that 
not only the chu jen, but the Hanlin also, must hereafter attend the 
imperial imiversity, and each person must pursue a certain course 
of modem studies, and those who successfully complete such course 
of sudy at the university shall obtain diplomas allowing them to 
ent^r the ranks of expectant officials in the Province. Those who 
have joined the public service shall be periodically examined in what 
they are supposed to know by the viceroys or governors. The chan- 
cellor of the university is commanded to draw up suggestions for a 
course of study to be pursued by the new graduates in question. 

The Boxer troubles closed the schools in Peking and Tientsin, and 
in the north and west of China all the schools were temporarily 
abandoned for some months; some were completely destroyed. No 
doubt most of the schools outside of Shanghai were seriously affected. 
Soon after the Empress Dowager began to issue her edicts of reform ; 
her viceroys and governors, owing their appointments to Her Majesty, 
were most willing to aid her in carrying out these measures. The 
orders were first to establish provincial colleges and so work down 
to the lower grades, a method that later, as we shall see, had to be 
reversed. 

In 1901-2 new colleges were opened in the following Provinces 
with the accompanying appropriations for their annual support: 
Chekiang, 50,000 taels; Honan, 30,000 taels; Fookien $50,000 Mexi- 
can ; Kweichow, 20,000 taels ; Shantung, 50,000 taels ; Shansi, 50,000 
taels; Kiangsi, $60,000 Mexican; Kuangtung, 100,000 taels. Col- 
leges were also opened in Soochow and Chihli. 

A memorial signed by Chang Chih Tung, Chang Pai Hsi, and 
Jung Ching states that the sending of young inexperienced students 
to foreign countries has not been altogether a success, and recom- 
mends that older and more learned men be sent so that the Empire 
may receive more help from their experiences and study abroad. 
The memorial recommends that Hanlin and princes of high rank be 
permitted to travel abroad, and that they be rewarded by the Gov- 
ernment according to the length of time spent abroad — first class, 
those that have spent at least three years in foreign countries; second 
class, those who have spent two years in Europe and America ; third 
class, those who have traveled in Japan over one year. Those who 
stay in a foreign country less than a year are to receive no reward 
from the Government. The object of sending these men is that they 
may examine the methods of foreign governments, especially their 
9561°— 11 3 



34 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

diplomatic policies; examine their military and naval regulations; 
and study into their educational systems. Men of the highest de- 
grees are to meet foreign men of distinction and try to understand 
their customs and ideas. The men of lower rank are to take notes 
of what has especially interested them, and their notebooks upon 
return to China are to be handed to an imperial inspector and re- 
wards to be given only to those who make out worthy notes. Those 
who remained in universities and pursued regular courses of study 
would accomplish greater results, and if upon their return they 
passed successful examinations they should be most liberally re- 
warded. Those standing first should be granted the Hanlin degree 
and given some important office ; those who simply traveled were not 
to receive as high reward as those who studied while abroad; all 
officials traveling abroad would receive their regular salaries as an 
encouragement to such travel. 

Chang Chill Tung recommended that an educational board should 
be established, located at Peking, to have control over the entire 
system of education in the Empire; that the imperial university 
should be under the management of one man, to be called " tsung 
chien tu " in order to make its management more effective. 

August 21, 1903, Chang Chih Tung, Chang Pai Hsi, and Jung 
Ching made a report on the enforcement of the normal-school sys- 
tem and what should be the policy of the Government toward the 
chin shihs. It was recommended that the normal schools in Peking 
should be raised to the grade of a normal college, and that foreign 
langaiages were not to be taught in schools below the middle school. 
It had been planned in order that all Hanlins, chin shihs, and chung 
shus might understand some western learning that they study in a 
school called the " chin shih kuan." It was found not practicable 
to require all of them to enter the school, as some were disqualified 
on account of age. So it was agreed that all these scholars under 

35 years of age should enter the chin shih kuan, and while studying 
to be paid salaries ; but that those above the age of 35, who wished, 
were to be given the official rank of " chih hsien," district magistrate, 
and were then to be given offices in the Provinces ; but should any of 
these older students wish to study in the " chin shih kuan " they 
might do so. This recommendation received the imperial sanction. 

Although the Pa Ku Wen Chang (Eight-Legged Essay) had been 
abolished and the short essay instituted in its place, still the old 
competitive examinations were in existence. These examinations 
were the very bone and sinew of the Chinese constitution. China 
without her examinations was unthinkable; they possessed the key 
to official life; they required a thorough knowledge of Chinese liter- 
ature, and what the literary chancellor had been obliged to know to 
secure his degree was still required of his undergraduates. To be 



DEVELOPME]SrT OF MODEEN EDUCATION. 35 

successful students they must still follow the old beaten tracks, and 
there was little or no time to give to modern learning. The goal of 
all Chinese education had been for over 1,200 years, and still was, 
Government official recognition. The modern educational system had 
been in force two years and few modern schools had been established. 
The people still clung to the old system, and as long as it was in 
existence it would be next to impossible to get the wealthy to give 
toward the establishment of modern schools, and without their volun- 
tary contributions the schools could not exist. The leaders of reform 
saw that in order to develop the modern educational system the old 
examinations must be abolished. There were about 1,839 degree- 
giving halls in the Empire, with as many as 960,000 competing 
scholars, and there were at least another million of students pre- 
paring to enter the lists. It certainly would be a drastic measure, 
resulting in a great revolution, that would abolish the examination 
system and destroy the hoj)es of 2,000,000 men. 

In the eleventh month of the twenty-ninth year of the reign of 
Kuang Hsii, Chang Chih Tung, Chang Pai Hsi, Jung Ching, and 
Yuan Shih Kai presented a memorial to the Throne advocating the 
gradual abolishment of the old examination system. They believed 
that unless it was fully known that the old system was to be abol- 
ished the modern schools would not prosper. They pointed out that 
if the modem system of schools, as had been outlined, were fostered 
and supervised by the viceroys and governors, in 10 years the 
colleges would be able to furnish numbers of young men capable of 
doing efficient service for the Empire. They offered the following 
suggestions in order to abolish the system : 

1. For the degrees of Hanlin, chin shih, and chu jen, there would 
be held but three more examinations, the number of degrees granted 
to be decreased one-third at each examination, and so no more im- 
perial or provincial examinations would be held after the third. 

2. For the hsiu tsai {A. B. degree) there were to be held four 
examinations in the next six years. The number of degrees granted 
to be decreased one- fourth at each examination, abolishing the exami- 
nation for A. B. after the fourth examination. 

3. Thereafter the imperial examinations were to be restricted to 
graduates of the imperial university. The chu jen degree was to be 
conferred upon graduates of the provincial colleges, and the hsiu 
tsai to be given by examination only to graduates of the middle 
schools. 

4. The educational officers of the old system were to be retained in 
the new educational system. 

5. Men under 30 years of age having the degree of chu jen, or kung 
sheng, were to enter schools. Men from 30 to 50 years of age might 
enter the traininc: classes in normal schools, and those who did not 



36 THE EDUCATIONAL. SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

wish to enter the normals might, after the three examinations, pre- 
sent themselves at a general examination (grace examination), where 
some of the highest might be made chih hsien and distributed among 
the different Provinces, and those of good literary ability, in case 
they are not made officials, might be given positions as teachers in 
the schools, and after three years' successful work might be rewarded 
by the Government. 

It was an imperial decree of September 2, 1905, that gave the last 
blow to the old style of literary examinations. Yuan Shih Kai felt 
that the decree of gradually abolishing the old examinations would 
delay matters too much, and that the old examinations should be 
abolished at once in order to allow the expansion of the modern 
system of education, and so memorialized the Throne. Viceroy 
Yuan first pointed out that it would not be violating ancient custom, 
but rather following it, since " before the era of what is termed the 
Three Dynasties men of office were selected from the schools, and it 
must be confessed that the plan produced many talented men." 
The decree goes on to say : " It was indeed a most successful plan 
for the creation of a nursery for the disciplining of talent and the 
molding of character for our Empire of China. Indeed, the ex- 
amples before us of the wealth and power of Japan and the countries 
of the west have their foundation in no other than their own schools. 
Just now we are passing through a crisis fraught with difficulties, 
and the country is most urgently in want of men of talent and abili- 
ties of the modern sort." He asserts that unless these old-style ex- 
aminations be abolished at once the people of this Empire will con- 
tinue to show apathy and hesitate to join the modern schools of 
learning. " Hence, if we desire to see the spread of modern educa- 
tion by the establishment of a number of schools we must first abolish 
the old style of studying for the examinations. The said memorial- 
ist's arguinents on the subject show the result of experience and 
knowledge, and we therefore hereby command, beginning from the 
Ping Wu Cycle (1906), all competitive examinations for the literary 
degrees of chu jen (M. A.) and chin shih (Ph. D.) after the old style 
shall be henceforth abolished, while the annual competitions in the 
cities of the various Provinces for the hsiu tsai (B. A.) or licentiate 
degree are also abolished at once. Those possessing literary grades 
of the old style chu jen and hsiu tsai who obtained their degrees prior 
to the issuance of this decree shall be given opportunities to take up 
official rank according to their respective grades and abilities." It 
states that the methods of rewards in rank and degree are to be the 
same as those formerly given in the examinations. "' We are certain 
that the official classes and gentry throughout the Empire, on learn- 
ing of this, will enthusiastically set abou'^ to start as many schools 



DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN EDUCATION, 37 

as possible and to give the blessing of modern education to every 
individual subject of the Throne. * * * ^J\TQ command our min- 
isters of educations, on receiving this our imperial decree, to lose 
no time in at once distributing to the various Provinces the textbooks 
that have been prepared for schools, so that we may have a uniform 
system in teaching in all our schools." It further urges that pri- 
mary schools shall be established at once in all the towns, hamlets, 
and villages, and that the utmost care be exercised in the selection of 
teachers for these schools. 

The next day was issued an edict commanding that all the literary 
chancellors in the various Provinces should be given the duty of 
holding examinations and inspecting the schools of the Province to 
which each of them had been appointed under the previous regime, 
and that each should work in conjunction with the viceroy or gov- 
ernor of the Province in which he held oiRce. The same day another 
edict commanded that for the sake of uniformity the literary chan- 
cellors of the Provinces, instead of remaining under the board of 
rites, were in future to be under the control of the chief commis- 
sioners of education (hsueh wu ta chen). The chief commissioners 
of education, Chang Pai Hsi, Jung Ching, and the Viceroy Chang 
Chih Tung, presented an elaborate outline for the educational sys- 
tem in China, and rules and regulations for the governing of the 
same. They had carefully studied the educational systems of foreign 
countries before preparing their report. The rapid development of 
Japan and her successes in the war with Russia called forth the ad- 
miration of China, and Viceroy Chang was especially pro-Japanese. 
Hence it is not strange that the Japanese educational system was to 
these commissioners the most attractive, and that they should have 
developed an educational system by grafting the Japanese system 
upon the old Chinese educational system devoted to the study of the 
Chinese classics. They were not trained in western learning, and it 
is not surprising that they did so poorly, but that they should have 
succeeded so well in outlining a cofnplete sj^stem of education, which 
included kindergarten and orphan schools, lower and higher primary 
schools, middle schools, provincial colleges (higher schools), and a 
national university, with its colleges and graduate school. They also 
outlined courses for normal schools and colleges, colleges of languages, 
the Chin Shih College, agricultural schools and colleges, and techni- 
cal schools and colleges. An edict of the eleventh month of Kuang 
Hsii, twenty-ninth year, approved this memorial. 

On the 5th of September, 1905, an edict was issued in regard to 
Chinese students studying abroad. It states that the viceroys and 
governors have obeyed the command to send a number of selected 
students to study in foreign countries; that as there is a very large 



38 THE EDUCATIOlSrAL SYSTEM OF CHIlSrA. 

number of students already in Japan, a large number should also 
be sent to study in Europe and America, and " to those who are 
willing- to cross the wide oceans in order to gain substantial knowl- 
edge to be of use to their country when they return home we shall 
certainly show our deepest pleasure and commendations." The min- 
isters abroad were to have charge of the students in the country where 
they were accredited, and they were commanded to " treat the 
students like their own children and relatives." They must also at 
times examine the students as to their studies and see that they lived 
orderly lives and were diligent in their work. " Should any of them 
be in want of money to prosecute their studies or any be ill, our 
ministers are expected to give what pecuniary or other aid the case 
may demand. * * * Let not our officials look slightingly on 
these students, but assist the Throne in every way to obtain men of 
ability and use for the betteiTaent of the Empire." The students 
were reminded that they should study with profit to themselves and 
their country, so that upon their return they might be of service 
to their Emperor. They were urged to make careful selections of 
studies, not choosing smiple ones, nor shirking difficult ones, but 
choosing those subjects which they were best fitted to pursue and 
which would give them knowledge and ability so that they might 
upon their return show by examination that they were qualified to 
take places of responsibility. 

It was after receiving a joint report from the ministers of the 
department of state affairs (cheng wu chu) and the commissioners 
of educational affairs (hsueh wu ta chen) that the Government 
created the ministry of education (hsueh pu), December 6, 1905. 
The following is a translation of a part of the edict : 

"At the present moment schools and colleges are being established 
in every Province of our Empire, and it has therefore become neces- 
sary to create a department in the Government which shall be at 
their head for the better purpose of perfect control. We therefore 
hereby command that a ministry of education (hsueh pu) be created 
forthwith, and that Jung Ching, assistant grand secretary and chan- 
cellor of the Hanlin Academ}^, be appointed president of the new 
ministr}^ We further appoint Hsi Ying to be senior vice president, 
with the rank of an expectant metropolitan officer of the third grade. 
We further command that the duty and administration work of the 
imperial academy (kuo tse chien) be amalgamated with the new 
ministr5^ The newly appointed president of the ministry of educa- 
tion is also commanded to confer with his colleagues as to whatever 
shall be further needed for the completion of the rights and duties 
of the ministry that have not been touched upon in this decree and 
to report the same to us. With the inauguration of this new depart- 



DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN EDUCATION. 39 

ment of the Government the members thereof have the very impor- 
tant and serious duty of specially seeing to the encouragement and 
nurture of education throughout the Empire, and we would there- 
fore enjoin upon each and all of them to put forth their best effort 
to do their duty in furthering the earnest wishes of the Throne in 
this matter, which shall lead to the enlightenment and civilization 
of the people and the establishment of a universal education through- 
out the country." 

The Chinese Government, realizing the necessity of coming into 
closer relations with foreign nations and of securing a better under- 
standing of their various political institutions, manufactures, com- 
merce, agriculture, navies, armies, and educational institutions, have 
since 1901 sent many delegations of commissioners abroad to study. 

In 1904 Prince Pu Lun was appointed commissioner and Wang 
Kai Hah vice commissioner to go on a mission abroad to visit the St. 
Louis Exposition. Prince Pu Lun was the fifth prince of the im- 
perial blood who had ever visited Shanghai during the past two cen- 
turies. The first was Prince Chun, the present regent, who in July, 
1901, passed through Shanghai on his way to Germany to apologize 
for the murder of Baron Von Ketteler, German minister, in June, 
1900- The second was Prince Tsai Chen, son and heir of Prince 
Ching, who in May, 1902, was on his way to England as special am- 
bassador to congratulate King Edward on His Majesty's coronation. 
The third and fourth princes were the sons of Prince Su, who in the 
summer of 1902 were on a trip to the Straits Settlements and the 
Osaka Exhibition in company with the Mongol prince Kharachin. 
Again, in the fall of 1905, " the five high commissioners," composed of 
Duke Tsai Tse, Hsu Shih Chang, Tai Hung Tze, Tuan Fang, and Li 
Sheng Te, were commissioned to visit Japan, the United States, Eng- 
land, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Italy, and Belgium. 
China had for so long shut herself up in her complacency against 
the whole world that these commissions, composed of some of China's 
greatest men, should be sent abroad to study western education, agri- 
culture, and jurisprudence, with the hope of finding something that 
would revolutionize and build up China into one of the world's great 
powers took the Occident by surprise. The results have more than 
justified the expenditure and truly demonstrated to the world that 
China is in earnest in her effort to reform her educational, industrial, 
economic, and constitutional systems. During the period of reor- 
ganization of education from June 1, 1901, to the time of the abolish- 
ing of the old system of examinations, September 2, 1905, as is in- 
dicated by the contents of the edict of that date, modern schools were 
not being established as rapidly as the Government desired. In some 
Provinces little if any attention had been given the subject, and in 



40 THE EDUCATIONAL, SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

some others where half-hearted attempts had been made the schools 
were of necessity poorly organized, the management was in the hands 
of unqualified men, and the teachers had little or no knowledge of 
pedagogy and western learning. There were three or four Provinces 
that had made a more earnest attempt. Chili Province at this time 
took the lead in educational matters. In a measure this was due to 
her location, being the metropolitan Province, although the schools 
of Peking are not under the jurisdiction of the Province, having an 
independent educational board, but the rapid development of the 
schools was A^ery largely due to the energetic measures and good 
administration of the viceroy, Yuan Shih Kai. He had a clear con- 
ception of what was needed, understood how to organize, and was 
wise enough to employ Dr. Tenney to supervise the schools of the 
Province during the first period of reconstruction. In May, 1902, 
Viceroy Yuan established a provincial board of education at Pao- 
tingfu, with the object of having it supervise all the schools in the 
Province. Hu Yueh Fan was appointed tu pan (director). At the 
same time there were eight other officers connected with the board. 
The administration was divided into three departments, special 
science, general educational, and translation and publication. March, 
1903, a printing press was added to the board's outfit, and a few 
months later the department of translation and publication added 
six more officers to its staff, superintendent of map drawing, proof 
reader, accountant, publisher, translator, and copyist. 

By May, 1904, lecture halls were opened, where lectures were given 
under the supervision of the board of education. The lectures were 
given with the hope of educating the public along the lines of reform 
and progress in the new system of government, industry, and edu- 
cation. These halls are open every night, Sundays excepted, when 
four half-hour lectures are given by able men. By the end of 1905, 
18 lecture halls had been opened in the Province. The provincial 
college at Paotingfu was organized in the spring of 1902. Its work 
was quite elementary, similar to that now required of the middle 
schools. In 1904 it had a teaching staff consisting of two Europeans 
and six Chinese, who were formerly students of the Tientsin Uni- 
versity and the Tientsin Naval College. In 1902 a normal school 
was established at Paotingfu under Japanese instructors. Its ob- 
ject was to train teachers to take charge of the primary schools. In 
1904 the school enrolled between 400 and 500 students, who were 
mostly of advanced age, many if not most of whom had Chinese 
degrees. 

The Tientsin University (Pei Yang Ta Hsueh Tang) was reopened 
in April, 1903, having been rebuilt on the site of the ruined arsenal 
at Hsiku, situated about 5 miles outside of Tientsin city. The stu- 



DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN EDUCATION. 41 

dents entering at that time were compelled to devote two years to 
preparatory work. In August, 1905, classes were formed in the 
technical departments of law, civil engineering, and mining. In 
1906 members of the advanced class were sent to the United States 
to complete their education. 

It was realized that middle schools must be established throughout 
the Provinces as feeders to the Tientsin University and provincial 
college. Dr. Tenney, president of the university, began their organi- 
zation in some of the f u and chou cities, and by the spring of 1904 
had 14 such schools organized, with an average of .about 50 students 
in each school. These schools were scattered over the Province from 
the extreme north on the borders of Mongolia to the extreme south of 
the Province not far from the Yellow Kiver. The Chinese examina- 
tion halls (shu yuan) were reconstructed for these middle schools, 
and as a rule are very suitable and commodious. Former students 
of the Tientsin University were intrusted with the teaching in these 
schools, and were very successful, often showing much enthusiasm 
in the work. All the schools had athletic grounds, and the students 
were required to take physical exercise daily as a part of their work. 
We are told by Dr. Tenney that the gentry often looked askance at 
the innovation, but the fear of the viceroy compelled them to tolerate 
it. In 1904 orders were given to establish a middle school in each 
fu of the Province, and in each hsien was to be established a higher 
primary school, and the smaller places were to organize lower pri- 
mary schools. At this date students were selected and sent to Japan 
for study in normal schools; upon their return they were expected 
to teach in the schools of Chihli Province. In order to save expense 
the three departments of the educational board were united in one 
department in October, 1904. In April, 1905, the board was moved 
from Paotingfu to Tientsin, where it is still located, having many 
buildings in spacious and beautiful grounds. That year the board 
was divided into seven departments, accounts, special sciences, gen- 
eral education, supervision, technical, map drawing, and one in 
charge of students studying in foreign countries. 

At this time night schools were opened giving officials an oppor- 
tunity to study English. The students sent the year before to study 
in the normal schools in Japan, having completed a short course, 
returned to Tientsin and were distributed among the fu cities to 
teach ; and more students were sent abroad to study. 

During this period other schools had been established in the Prov- 
ince. At Paotingfu an agricultural college was established in 190i2, 
a medical college in 1904, a political science school in 1905. A mili- 
tary and a Japanese language school were also established. An 
industrial school and an army medical school were established in 



42 



THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 



Tientsin. The Educational Directory for China, 1905, gives the 
following report of the middle schools of Chihli Province under 
Dr. Tenney, superintendent: 



Name of schools , 



Tientsin 

Chao Chou . . 
Chengting.. 
Chi Chou... 
Ho Chien. . . 
Hsuan Hua. 

I Chou 

JeHo 

Kuang Ping 



Chinese 
teachers. 


Pupils. 


6 


90 


3 


50 


4 


60 


3 


40 


4 


60 


4 


50 


2 


30 


4 


60 


4 


60 



Name of schools. 



Shen Chow 
ShenTe. .. 
Ta Ming. . . 
Ting Chou . 
Tsun Hua. 
Yung Ping. 

Total 



Chinese 
teachers. 



Pupils. 



75« 



English is taught in all the middle schools. 

By January, 1906, there were in Chihli Province 35 lecture halls, 
8 technical and special schools, 21 normal schools, 24 middle schools, 
and 166 boys' higher primary schools. 



CHAPTER IV. 
CONTROLLING AGENCIES OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 

The educational system in China, as we have seen by studying the 
growth of modern education, rests upon imperial decrees. The con- 
trolling authority, therefore, has been intrusted to, first, the minis- 
try of education, with its headquarters at Peking, and, second, the 
provincial boards of education and other local officers. As shown 
in the previous chapter, the ministry of education (hsueh pu) , 
created December 6, 1905, by imperial decree, has at its head a 
president and two vice presidents. These are assisted by five depart- 
ments, three of which are subdivided into three bureaus, and the 
other two into two bureaus each. Each department has a senior 
secretary in charge, and each bureau a second-class secretary and one 
or two second-class assistant secretaries. 

The first department is the department of general supervision 
(tsung wu szu), and is composed of the following bureaus: First, 
bureau of secret and important documents (chi yao ke), and, as its 
name indicates, it has charge of all secret and important documents, 
prepares memorials and documents for the ministry of education, 
has the supervision and recommendation of educational officials to be 
promoted or degraded. Second, bureau of records (an tu ke), which 
receives and files all records and reports from the educational boards 
of the Province. Third, bureau of textbooks (shen ting ke), which 
has the supervision, inspection, and approving of all textbooks, and 
the preparing and providing suitable ones for the schools of the 
Empire. 

The second department is the department of professional education 
(chuan men szu), and is composed of: First, the bureau of instruc- 
tion of professional education (chuan men chiao), which looks after 
the establishing of universities, provincial colleges, and professional 
schools of law, political science, and the like ; it also has charge of the 
examination of private professional schools as to their standard, 
rank, and privileges, and makes reports concerning them to the 
ministry of education. Second, the bureau of administration of 
professional education (chuan men szu), which is to protect and 
encourage professional education; to examine all professional asso- 
ciations and to reward those who are worthy ; to have charge of 
museums, observatories, and the weather bureau, and to have charge 
of all students studying in foreign countries. 

43 



44 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP CHINA. 

The third department is the department of general education 
(pu tung szu) , and is composed of : First, the bureau of normal educa- 
tion (shih fan chiao yu ke), which has charge of all normal schools; 
deaf, dumb, and blind schools, women's normal schools, and domestic 
education, as to their schedules, rules, regulations, administrative 
officers, teaching staff, and the like. Second, the bureau of secondary 
education (chung teng chiao yu ke), which has charge of middle 
schools for boys and girls, and all other schools of the same rank, as 
to their studies, rules, regulations, administration, teaching staff, and 
the like. Third, the bureau of primary education (hsiao hsueh chiao 
yu ke) , which looks after the interests of all the primary schools, has 
charge of the halls for promoting education (chuan hsueh so) ; also 
of kindergartens and all elementary schools. 

The fourth department is the department of technical education 
(shih yeh szu) composed of: First, the bureau of instruction in 
technical education (shih yeh chiao wu ke), which has charge of 
the agricultural, industrial, and commercial schools; also of all 
technical schools, as to their rules, regulations, administra.tion, 
students, teaching staff, etc. Second, the bureau of administration 
of technical education (shih yeh shu wu ke), which is to examine 
into the conditions of technical education in the Provinces and to 
devise ways and means for promoting and supporting the same. 

The fifth department is the department of finance (hui chi szu) 
and is composed of : First, the bureau for the receiving and disburs- 
ing of funds (tu chih ke), which has the preparing of the budget 
for the ministry of education and for the Provinces and also has 
charge of all the finances of the ministry of education and makes 
reports of the same; it also has charge of all property connected 
with the ministry of education. Second, the bureau of buildings 
(chien chu ke), which looks after the buildings of all schools, 
libraries, and museums of schools directly under the supervision of 
the minister of education; also examines the architectural plans for 
all schools in China. Third, the bureau of miscellaneous affairs 
(szu wu ting), which has charge of the seal of the ministry of edu- 
cation and stamps all papers; superintends the buildings and 
grounds of the ministry of education, day and night, and is in 
charge of all the servants connected with the ministry of education. 

The ministry of education sends out inspectors to visit the schools 
of the various Provinces, and they are required to make personal 
inspection of the schools and within six months to send in reports 
to the ministry of education of the number of schools visited with 
the number of teachers and pupils. The Peking Daily News of 
February 28, 1908, reports that these inspectors receive a salary of 
200 taels per month, but it is not customary to publish the salaries 
of Chinese Government officers. The North China Herald of 



CONTROLLIISrG AGENCIES. 45 

December 18, 1909, page 642, states that " The regulations drawn up 
by the ministry of education for the inspection of schools have been 
approved by decree, and will be put into operation, next year." 
The Universal Gazette, December 31, 1909, states that the ministry 
of education, having appointed educational commissioners and 
provincial boards of education, is contemplating establishing dis- 
trict boards of education in every Province. 

The ministry of education is to establish a large depot in Peking 
from which it can supply every kind of educational requisite for the 
entire Empire. It has a nomenclature committee at work compiling 
a uniform and much-needed dictionary of technical terms. 

About the time of the establishment of the ministry of education 
the Japanese ministry of education provided Japanese professors to 
give a five-weeks' course of lectures before the Chinese ministry of 
education and the commissioners of education who had been sent 
to Japan to study the Japanese system of education. Later in 1906 
the commissioners of education who had not been abroad were 
requested to visit Japan and examine the educational system of 
that country before beginning their official duties. 

In each Province there is a provincial board of education, called 
the hsueh wu kung so. All the officers of this board are nominated 
by the ministry of education and confirmed by the Throne. The 
provincial commissioner of education (ti hsueh shih) is to be of the 
same rank as the provincial treasurer, and is under the control of the 
viceroy or governor of the Province. His duties are, to enforce the 
regulations of the ministry of education; to report to the viceroy 
or governor any prefectural or district magistrate who is not carry- 
ing out the regulations of the ministry ; to make yearly reports of all 
the schools in the Province and to present them to the viceroy or 
governor who will forward the reports to the ministry of education ; 
to work with the provincial treasurer and see that funds are pro- 
vided for the schools. He is also required to make reports whenever 
called upon, and he can, in cases of great importance, communicate 
directly with the ministry of education; but he can not leave the 
Province without first securing the consent of the ministry of educa- 
tion. This provincial commissioner of education, who has a number 
of officers to assist him, nominates, and the viceroy or governor ap- 
points, six ins]Dectors (sheng shih hsueh) who are chosen from normal 
graduates, returned students from abroad, administrators, or teachers 
of schools. These inspectors are required to visit the schools and 
make reports. There are a senior and five junior counselors called 
i chang and i sheng, who are to assist the provincial commissioner in 
devising ways and means for carrying out the educational program, 
and are to be able to answer all questions asked by the viceroy or 
governor concerning education in the Province. There are also a 



46 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

superintendent of education (kao teng chiao yu chiang shih), a 
private secretary (mi shu kuan), and a commissioner of investiga- 
tion (chi cha). 

There are six bureaus in the board of education, each having a 
president, vice president, and secretary. First, the bureau of ac- 
counts (huai chi ke) ; second, the bureau of technical schools (shih 
yeh ke) ; third, the bureau of administration (tsung wu ke) ; fourth, 
the bureau of general education (pu tung ke) ; fifth, the bureau of 
professional education (chuan men ke) ; sixth, the bureau of map 
drawing and engraving (tu shu ke). We have been informed that 
the educational board of Chili Province in 1908 contained 52 mem- 
bers ; that 1 was a returned student having graduated in Japan ; 1 a 
returned student, who had graduated from an American college; 5 
had traveled in Japan; 14 were graduates of normal schools or of 
political science schools; 1 was a graduate of the Tientsin Naval 
College; 1 a graduate of an engineering school; 1 was a chin shih 
(Ph. D. Government graduate) ; 14 were chu jen (N. A, Government 
graduates) ; and all had received some Government literary degree. 
The expense of this educational board for the thirty-third year of 
Kuang Hsu (1907-08) was 41,264 taels, or $29,760. 

Educational commissioner's offices had been established in some 
of the foreign countries to liaA^e charge of Government Chinese 
students studjang abroad. In Japan, where there is the largest 
number of Chinese students, this office is located inside of the 
Chinese legation at Tokyo. The Chinese minister is the president 
and the educational commissioner is his assistant, and must be 
chosen from among the Chinese legation secretaries in Japan by 
the ministry of education and the Chinese minister of the legation 
in Tokyo. The educational commissioner receives instructions from 
the minister, but all diplomatic affairs concerning the students are 
entirely in the hands of the minister, but the educational commis- 
sioner is to rejDort such cases to the minister. It is the duty of the 
commissioner to keep records of the students as to their school 
work and character and to make reports of the same to the ministry 
of education in Peking. He also protects, directs, and corrects 
these students when occasions require, but is to act with discretion. 
He is also to give certificates, such as are required by the minister 
of education, to students graduating from Japanese schools ; to issue 
excuses to students, such as granting them the privilege of return- 
ing to China on a visit or permanently; and he has the right to 
send back to China such students as have a bad character or are 
not making progress in their studies; but he must make reports 
also of these matters to the ministry of education. In making choice 
of a course of study, the student must first secure the approval of the 
educational commissioner before entering upon the work. The board- 



CONTROLLING AGENCIES. 47 

ing or lodging places of students outside of the legation are subject 
to the commissioner's approval, and in case of sickness he selects the 
hospital to which the student is to be sent. He has charge of pay- 
ing the monthly stipends to the students, and in cases where self- 
supporting students become financially embarrassed he may loan 
them to the amount of $50, which must be paid back inside of two 
months' time, or the student will forfeit the right to borrow further 
sums from the office. Help can be given to but one student at a 
time from the same Province. In the case of the death of a self- 
supporting student the commissioner may furnish the amount neces- 
sary to send the body home, but the expense must not exceed $300 
Mexican. 

The commissioner's office has four departments: First, charge of 
students ; second, finances ; third, charge of official documents ; fourth, 
department of translation, where the regulations of Japanese schools 
are put into Chinese. The commissioner selects at the most 10 men 
for his staff of advisors, who are to aid him in solving difficult ques- 
tions. The salaries of these lower officers are fixed by the minister. 
For the students studying in Great Britain and Europe there has 
been but one educational commissioner's office, which has been located 
in London, but we are informed that the ministry of education has 
changed this plan and in future educational commissioners' offices 
will be established in each European country where Chinese Govern- 
ment students are pursuing their studies. In the United States there 
is more than one educational commissioner. Dr. Tenney was one of 
the first to be appointed to look after the students sent out by the 
Tientsin University, and later they have been placed under a com- 
missioner of the Chinese imperial customs. Mr. Yung Kwai, son 
of the venerable Yung Wing, is in charge of the Chinese students 
sent out under the indemnity fund returned to China by the United 
States. 

The provincial board is also aided by supervisory boards of pri- 
mary schools. In Chihli Province there were, in 1908, 31 such 
boards. In the same year there had been established in the Province 
29 educational clubs (chiao yu hui). The ministry of education 
ordered all the Provinces to establish educational exhorting societies 
(chuan hsueh so), where the school officials and teachers might meet 
and discuss the ways and means for promoting the schools, and 
where some might receive help from those of experience and acknowl- 
edged success. In Peking, in 1908, an attempt was made especially 
to interest those connected with the Government, public, and private 
elementary schools to bring about better results and a more unified 
system of conducting the school and better teaching methods. They 
met at a place called the " Hu Feng Chiao" on the fourth Sunday 
in each month, in spring and winter, from 1 to 4 o'clock, and the 



48 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHIN'A, 

remainder of the year from 8 to 11 o'clock. Any teacher of Govern- 
ment, public, or private schools could become a member of this club 
through the reconunendation of a regular member. In 1908 there 
were 149 of these societies in Chihli Province. Throughout the Em- 
pire there have been established great numbers of lecture halls (hsuan 
chiang so). In Chihli Province alone there were by 1908 no less 
than 158 lecture halls. Four lectures are given every night, except 
on Sundays, from 7.15 to 9.15. During the daytime the majority of 
the halls are used for half-day schools. It has been my privilege to 
attend some of these meetings in Tientsin city. The halls are large 
and comfortable, fitted up with tables, stools, and long benches. 
They are well lighted, and the guests during the evenings are often 
refreshed by a cup of hot tea. The attendance is usually good, aver- 
aging anywhere from 80 to 160, and some evenings as many as 1,000 
have been known to attend. In the city there were, in 1909, 18 lec- 
turers, who volunteered their services, receiving but $5 to pay for 
their rickshaw hire. Lectures are given to educate the people along 
educational, governmental, industrial, commercial, and general sub- 
jects. The provincial board of education insists that the edicts must 
be explained to the people ; also that lectures shall be given on par- 
liamentary government, so that the people may intelligently exercise 
the franchise as soon as a constitutional government is established in 
China. In many of the Provinces much pains was taken to prepare 
the people for the first provincial assemblies of 1909. One evening 
in the east ma lu lecture hall in Tientsin I heard lectures on the f ol- 
lowiilg subjects: First, How Egypt Came to Lose Her Independence; 
second, History of Korea; third, The Russian and Japanese War; 
fourth. Principles of Commerce. These subjects were discussed in 
an intelligent and instructive manner, and commanded the close 
attention of the hearers. Another evening the subjects were: First, 
The Cultivation of the Individual ; second, Following the Customs and 
Manners That Have Been Handed Down to Us; third, Education; 
fourth. Books ^Vhich We Must Study. Every effort is being made 
by the educational boards to educate the people along the lines of 
modern education, and thus to secure their support and cooperation 
in advancing education. 



CHAPTER V. 
PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

Under the head of primary education may be placed kindergarten 
and home education, elementary schools, and technical schools of 
an elementary character. The last class is treated under technical 
schools. 

At the time of the adoption of the system of education no place 
outside of the kindergarten and home education was provided for 
the education of girls, hence this chapter otherwise treats only of 
schools for boys. 

Kindergartens are to be established for children from 2 to 6 years 
of age, and are to be taught by women specially trained for the 
work. Thus far the ministry of education has not been able to give 
nmch attention to the developing of this work, but it does expect first 
of all to have kindergartens organized in connection with the or- 
phanages that are being opened in the large cities, and it has pro- 
vided that women shall be trained as nurses for the caring for and 
teaching of these orphan children. Training classes are to be pro- 
vided for widows who may be able to devote themselves to the carry- 
ing on of this work. It is the plan of the Government to prepare 
books relating to home education, and also to have translations made 
of the best foreign books on kindergarten subjects. The Government 
hopes that through the preparation of these books many mothers 
will, by reading them, learn the most modern methods of training 
their children. It also suggests that the wealthy may be able to open 
such schools in their homes. 

I was able one day to visit the first private kindergarten school 
established in Tientsin, which had been opened by His Excellency 
Yen Hsin, a Hanlin and the vice president of the ministry of edu- 
cation, in his home. It was carried on very successfully, doing the 
work of a model kindergarten, and its founder no doubt hoped by 
creating an interest in this department of education to induce many 
of the wealthier gentry to open kindergarten schools. His excellency 
had also established in his home a women's kindergarten training 
school, in which were 27 students; the instruction was good and the 
students gave promise of developing into good teachers. 

In Japan the kindergartens have flourished and are looked upon 
by the people as a very essential part of the educational system, and 
9561°— 11- i 49 



60 THE EDUCATIOOSTAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

we may infer that they will be just as attractive to the Chinese 
people and in time will be established in large numbers in the Em- 
pire. The home life in China needs to be supplemented by just what 
the kindergartens can furnish. The Chinese child seems to be more 
amenable to early instruction and to kindergarten influences than 
the European child, and this should be taken advantage of, and a 
widespread use of the system would save much time and expense in 
after years when the child is passing through the primary schools. 

The elementary schools are divided into two grades, called lower 
primary (chu tong hsiao hsueh tang) and the higher primary (kao 
tong hsiao hsueh tang). Sometimes the two are united in one school, 
known as a higher-lower primary. Again, there are schools called 
half -day schools, where the attendance is so great that acconmioda- 
tion can only be given all the pupils by dividing them into two 
classes, one attending school in the forenoon and the other in the 
afternoon. Again there are night schools, where the poor children 
who have to work during the daytime may attend and secure an ele- 
mentary education. Many night schools have been opened in the 
towns and villages where men have attended in large numbers. The 
subjects taught are morals, reading, writing, and accounts. 

Lower primary schools, having a course of five years, have been 
established for boys, who may enter at the age of 6. These schools 
are classed as Government, public and private schools. It is expected 
that each village having 100 roofs will establish one of these schools, 
aijd the Government expects this rule to be enforced by 1915. The 
Government proposes to establish in each hsien at least two so-called 
Government lower primary schools, and in each town at least one 
such school. The funds for these Government schools are to be sup- 
plied by the local magistrate. The public lower primary schools are 
such as have been established and organized according to the regula- 
tions of the ministry of education for lower primary schools, and are 
being supported by contributions that formerly were used for other 
purposes, such as theatricals. These contributions may be turned 
into a permanent endowment. Any private school supported by any 
individual, providing it has an enrollment of over 30 boys and con- 
forms to the regulations made by the Government for lower primary 
schools, may be placed under Government control, being under the 
control and supervision of the local magistrate. All schools are to 
be established by sanction of the local magistrate, and without his 
sanction no school is allowed to be closed. The magistrate is ex- 
pected to encourage and foster such schools, and if it be found that 
he is negligent in his duties, he is to be reported and degraded ; and 
if he interferes and obstructs the establishment of schools, he is to 
be reported and severely punished. He is required to select some of 
the most respectable citizens to aid him in securing the establish- 



PRIMARY EDUCATION. 



51 



ment of schools. His future promotion depends not a little upon 
how he has been able to organize, establish, and finance schools. Any 
citizen who gives liberally toward the support of these schools may 
be reported to the governor of the Province for reward. 

The course of study extends through five years. Eight subjects 
are taught through the entire course, and the number of hours re- 
quired per week is to be uniform through the course as given below. 

Course of study for the louver primary schools (five years). 



Subjects. 



Ethics.... 

Chinese classics. . . 
Chinese Uterature 

Mathematics 

History 



Number 
of hours. 



Subjects. 



Geography . 

Science 

Drill 

Total 



Number 
of hours. 



The work required in mathematics is : First year, 1 to 20 ; read and 
write; addition and subtraction. Second year, 20 to 100; multipli- 
cation and division. Third year, addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
tion, and division. Fourth year, decimals; the use of the abacus. 
Fifth year, application of the four rules, using the abacus. 

The work required in Chinese classics: First year. Filial Piety 
Classic; Analects, volume 1 (Lun Yu), taking about 40 characters 
in advance each day, reading and explaining them. Second year. 
Analects, volume 2 (Lun Yu) ; Great Learning (Ta Hsueh) and 
Doctrine of the Mean (Chung Yung), 60 characters per day. Third 
year, Meng Tze, 100 characters per day. Fourth year, Meng Tze, 
Li Chi, 100 characters per day. Fifth year, Li Chi, 100 characters 
per day. 

The work required in Chinese literature: First year, nouns and 
verbs; second year, building sentences; third year, building para- 
graphs; fourth year, continuation of third-year work; fifth year, 
letter writing, common style. The pupils also have work in pen- 
manship, and practice recognizing characters at sight. 

History is one hour per week throughout the five years and- con- 
sists of reading short stories and biographies of famous men in 
Chinese histor3^ 

In geography they begin with the neighborhood, extending out 
to the hsien, fu. Province, China, and the countries bordering on 
China. 

Science work, elementary study in zoology, botany, and mineralogy. 

Morals are taught to develop in the boys a desire to do right in 
and out of school. 

Drill consists of physical exercises. 



52 THE EDUCATIOaSTAL SYSTEM OF CHINA, 

Drawing and manual work may be taken as elective studies. 

The teacher has the right to diminish the number of hours of study 
during the 20 days before examination. 

The old system of having the boys learn to commit without any 
explanations is no longer desired. The best schools explain the text 
as a pupil proceeds in his lesson. It is not unusual to find teachers 
still clinging to the old methods of teaching in the primary schools. 
In Tientsin city, while visiting schools, I found some old-style pri- 
mary schools in the very vicinity where the " model primary school " 
is located. I had just left the model primary school and was there- 
fore able to compare the old with the new system. The model pri- 
mary school contained all the grades of the higher and lower primary 
schools. Here, indeed, I found all the classes conducted by able 
teachers, who not only understood the most modern primary methods 
of teaching, but were also able to apply these methods. Here I found 
the best primary work that I have seen in China. The pupils were 
in perfect order, giving the very best attention, were enthusiastic, 
and showed by their recitations that they had had excellent drill in 
the work they had been over. Never have I seen better work done 
in the schools of the United States than I saw in this model primary- 
school. The work done in most of the modern primary schools that 
I have visited, while being somewhat better than the old schools, still 
falls verj^ far short of what we would call good work in the United 
States. Most of the teachers are men taught in the old way and 
have very little knowledge of western science and less of pedagogy, 
and they find the old way much easier than the new. When China 
has young men teaching who have been well trained in normal 
methods, then, and not before, we may expect to find better primary 
schools in China. 

It was discovered that the lower primarj^ schools were not doing 
good work, and that the pupils were not able to complete all the out- 
lined course of study in the five years, so, on May 15, 1909, the minis- 
try of education sent in a memorial asking that the course of study 
for the lower primary schools might be altered to meet the needs of 
the people and with the hope of establishing a larger number of such 
schools. The ministry of education made the following suggestions, 
which were on the same day approved by an imperial edict: That 
each school should have at least 30 pupils, and that there should be 
offered two courses of study, one a complete course and the other a 
much easier course. The memorial says : " When we examined the 
lower primary schools last year, scarcely could be found one school 
conforming strictly to the regulations as outlined by the ministry of 
education. To be sure, most of the officials had a few schools to 
show off', but these were so few as not to be worthy of mention, 
but there were schools where the officials could show that a large 



PEIMAEY EDUCATIOlSr, 53 

amount of money had been spent with very little work done. Wlien 
asked the causes for the poor work that had been done, the following 
were some of the complaints offered : ' The course of study contained 
too many subjects; the funds for the school were not sufficient to 
employ well-qualified teachers; and the number of hours of study too 
limited.' We believe these complaints are true." In the old course 
there were eight subjects; in the new, history, geography, and natural 
science are not to be studied as subjects, but some knowledge of them 
to be obtained from the subject matter in their new readers. In their 
place music is added and drawing is made optional. In place of 30 
recitation hours per week, as in the old course, the new is to have 36 
hours. Sunday forenoon is to be used for reviewing the week's work, 
and the afternoon is for rest. In the easy course the pupils will study 
reading, Chinese literature, and mathematics. If a school is located 
in a city the students should have physical drill, but if in the country 
ihej may do without it, especially if they have no teacher to do the 
work. Drawing is made optional in this easy course. The people 
living in a place may decide which course shall be taught in the school, 
and if they wish both courses in the same school, two departments 
may be formed. In case a pupil who has completed a short course 
wishes to enter the higher primary, he must make up all the work 
required in the complete course before he enters. The number of 
years may also be cut down from five to three in the easy course. 

The Chinese language has no phonetic system, but is made up of 
an unknown number of complicated idiographs, called characters. 
Each of these characters must be separately learned by the child 
through an effort of memory. He must recognize by the form of a 
character its name and meaning, and he also must know how to 
write the character from memory. All this places a heavy burden 
upon the child and prevents his making as rapid progress in his 
studies as could be made using a phonetic language. Wang Chao, 
the secretar}^ who figured so conspicuousl}^ at the time of Kuang 
Hsu's reforms, has invented a phonetic system that has some good 
points, but as a whole is not generally considered satisfactory. The 
new era is looking for an inventor to bring this blessing to China. 

After completing the lower primary course of study students may 
enter the higher primary. The course is limited to 4 years of 36 
hours' recitations per week. These schools may be established in 
any city, town, or village. In every hsien there must be one so-called 
Government higher primary school. In any city or town, if there 
have been any self-supporting schools, they may be classed as higher 
primary schools by conforming to the rules of the ministry of edu- 
cation, and where these schools have been supported by contribu- 
tions and collections, such as have been used for theatrical i)urposes, 
these collections may be regarded as endowments, and the schools 



54 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

SO established are known as public higher primary schools. Several 
villages may join together and establish a higher primary school 
after jfirst securing the consent of the magistrate. When anyone 
establishes and pays all the expenses of a higher primary school, the 
school is classed as a private higher primary school, and must con- 
form to the same rules as govern higher primary schools. The local 
magistrate is to see that higher primary schools are established and 
regulated according to law, and any violation on his part will subject" 
him to censure and possibly to punishment. He may select respect- 
able citizens to assist him in establishing these schools. The finances 
are left in the hands of the cities, towns, and villages to manage. 
The pupils are not required to pay tuition in the lower, but in the 
higher primary schools a moderate fee is required. The nine sub- 
jects taught during the four years embrace the following : Morals, 2 
hours; Chinese literature, 8 hours; Chinese classics, 12 hours; math- 
ematics, 3 hours ; science, 2 hours ; Chinese history, 2 hours ; geogra- 
phy, 2 hours; drawing, 2 hours; and physical drill, 2 hours. As 
was the case in the lower primary, so we find in the higher primary 
that the Chinese classics occupied the most important place, as 6 out 
of the 12 hours given are devoted to the reading of the Shih Ching, 
or Book of Poetrj^ ; the Shu Ching, or Book of History ; the I Ching, 
or Book of Changes ; and the Section on " Mourning," in the Li Chi, 
or Book of Kites. The remaining 6 hours are devoted to the expla- 
nation of the texts, and the 96,856 characters in the texts read.^ 

The work in Chinese literature is devoted to the study of the 
ku "^on, or ancient literature, and the translation of it into mandarin, 
the official language ; the writing of essays and the study of mandarin. 
In mathematics the larger portion of a grammar-school arithmetic 
is completed and drill is given in the use of the abacus. The work 
in Chinese history begins with the ancient period and attention is 
paid only to the most important events and changes made in the life 
of the nation. The work in geography includes the study of China 
and foreign nations. In science the first, second, and fourth years 
are devoted to the study of biology, and the third year to elementary 
chemistry. The object in teaching morals is to develop character, and 
this is done by bringing out prominently the characteristics of great 
men and their sayings or teachings. Use is made first of the four 
books, and then selections are made from the Book of Poetry. The 
work in physical drill is not alone for the exercising of the body, 
but also to teach the student prompt obedience. The principal may 
permit the students to take manual training, agriculture, or commerce, 
in place of work in biology, and two hours' work may also be dropped 
from other subjects, and if the three subjects, manual training, agri- 

-The Book of Poetry has 40,848 words in the text ; the Book of History, 27,134 words ; 
the Boob of Changes, 24,437 words ; and the Section on Mourning, 4,437 words. 



PRIMAEY EDUCATION. 55 

culture, and commerce, are desired, the scheduled number of hours 
may be increased by two. There should be eight classes and no 
more in the school, so that students may enter at either of the two 
terms of the year. No class is to have more than 60 pupils. Quali- 
fied pupils up to the age of 15 may enter the beginning classes in the 
school. The principal may diminish the number of hours of recita- 
tion 20 days before the close of each term. When the pupils are 
examined the principal should invite the local magistrate to be 
present and help look over the papers and grant the certificates. 
At the end of the second term of each jesiv every pupil who has 
completed all the subjects required in the course is to receive a cer- 
tificate showing that he is a graduate of that school, and this cer- 
tificate will be his passport into the middle schools. The rules forbid 
using corporal punishment on a boy above the age of 13, and when 
administered should not be too harsh. This rule had no place in 
the schools of the old regime, where a stupid pupil was often severely 
flogged to aid his memory or to pacify the anger of the master. 
Punishments of a milder form may be administered. The teachers 
are not to insist upon pupils repeating their lessons word by word, 
as was the case in the old schools, and which the old-fashioned 
teacher still likes even in the modem schools ; in fact, they fall back 
into that rut unless constantly watched by the principal of the 
school. More attention is being given to the explanation of all 
subjects read. The excellent new Chinese readers that have lately 
been prepared for the primary schools by western-trained Chinese 
men, and that are now widely used in the schools, are doing the 
most to overcome the faulty methods of the past; but even in the 
teaching of these books the old Government degree man needs to be 
watched or he will lapse into the old method and the pupils will be 
repeating word by word without comprehending the text read. The 
schools are now required to use textbooks authorized by the ministry 
of education. 

The regulations for schools recommend that the principal of 
primary schools should be a normal graduate, but laiowing that 
there is not a sufficient number of such graduates to man the schools, 
permit anyone reputed to be a good manager to be emploj'^ed tem- 
porarily as principal. The principal and his teachers are not 
allowed to leave their posts, nor to have any other occupation outside 
of the school, except by permission of the local magistrate. 

Reports of the primary schools are to be made at the end of the 
second term, stating the number of teachers, assistants, students, and 
graduates, and given the local magistrate who will forward the same 
to the viceroy or governor of the Province, and he in turn will for- 
ward them to the ministry of education. 



56 



THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP CHINA. 



Public buildings, private temples, and nunneries may be taken for 
the use of primary schools. These buildings may be repaired or 
changed to meet the needs of the schools. Large numbers of these 
buildings have been turned into schoolhouses, and, in some cases, 
the rents of the temple lands have been used to support the schools. 
The school buildings are to consist of one story and must contain 
recitation rooms, session rooms, and a large public room where all 
the pupils may assemble for public services. Dormitories are not 
at first to be required, but later on they may be built to accommo- 
date boys from country villages some distance from the school. All 
schools are to provide drill grounds, and the compound is to be 
sufficiently large to accommodate all buildings without crowding. 
The primary schools in some Provinces have not been established 
as rapidly as the Government had hoped. This has been due to 
various causes, but largely to the lack of funds. For the same reason 
many public and private schools have been closed, and again many of 
the schools have suffered for want of qualified teachers, especially 
for those who could teach the modern sciences. We must remember 
that the time since beginning the establishment of these schools has 
not been long — only about five or six years — and the normal schools 
have not yet had time to prepare anything like an adequate number 
of teachers for the millions of children that should be in the primary 
schools. But that so much should have been done in such places as 
Chihli Province holds out great hope that the time will come to 
China when as large a per cent of her children will be attending the 
primary schools as now attend the Japanese schools. In the year 
1907-8 there were in Chihli Province 8,675 lower primary schools 
having an attendance of 148,399; graduates for the year numbered 
537; the number of teachers, 8,969, with an average of 16+ pupils 
per teacher. The cost per pupil during the year was 2.63 taels, or 
$1.88. The amount received during the year for the schools was 
381,998 taels, or $272,855.71.^ 

The following report gives ( 1 ) the attendance in the lower primary 
schools in Chihli Province from 1902-3 to 1907-8, and (2) the ratio 
or per cent of attendance to the number of children of school age. 



Year. 


Attend- 
ance. 


Per cent of 

attendance 

to children 

of school 

age. 


Year. 


Attend- 
ance. 


Per cent of 

attendance 

to children 

of school 

age. 


1902-3 


1,000 
6,000 
36,344 


0. 0173 
.1043 

.632 


1905-6 

1906-7 

1907-8 


68,000 
109, 467 
148,399 


1. 1826 


1903-4 


1. 9037 


1904-5 


2. 5808 









1 Allowing exchange of 1.40 taels for 



PRIMARY EDUCATION. 57 

In the same year there were in the Province 121 half -day schools ; 
number of pupils, 2,9Tl; graduates, 133; number of teachers, 133; 
number of pupils per teacher, 22.3 ; cost per pupil for the year, 0.178 
taels, or $0,127. Amount received from the half -day schools during 
the year, 514 taels, or $367.14. The half-day public schools were sup- 
ported by (1) rent from temple lands, (2) subscriptions, and (3) 
taxes on wine, tobacco and cigarettes, and taxation on estates. The 
highest number of teachers in any of the half-day schools was 12, 
and 400 pupils the largest attendance. The lowest number of pupils 
in any school was 5. 

For the higher primary schools of that year we find the following : 
Total number of schools, 220 ; total number of students, 10,599 ; num- 
ber of graduates, 521 ; average number of pupils per teacher, 20.4 ; 
cost per pupil for the year, 39.53 taels, or about $28.23. The amount 
of funds raised that year for higher primary schools was 419,048 
taels, or $299,320. The largest attendance in any one school was 244, 
and the largest number to graduate from any school was 54. Gradu- 
ates of higher primary schools are recommended for admission to the 
normal schools and middle technical schools, as well as to the middle 
schools. The following rewards are given the students at the time 
of graduation : To the first grade is granted " ling sheng," to the 
second grade " tseng sheng," to the third grade " fu sheng." To the 
fourth and fifth grades there are no rewards. 



CHAPTER VI. 

MIDDLE SCHOOLS, PROVINCIAL COLLEGES, AND UNIVER- 
SITIES. 

MIDDLE SCHOOLS. 

The Government proposes to have a middle school (chung hsueh 
tang) established in each fu, but if any choii or hsien can provide for 
such a school and desires to do so, it is allowable ; but in the begin- 
ning it was thought wiser to establish these schools only in the fu 
cities. According to the Chihli provincial regulations for middle 
schools, as published in the Hsueh Pu Kuan Pao, Volume XLI, De- 
partment IV, page 441, on December 1, 1907, there must be at least 
one Government middle school established in each chou of the 
Province, and more than one where the population is large enough 
to warrant doing so. We do not understand that this rule is binding 
on other Provinces. Each fu is responsible for the financing of its 
own school. When the finances of any middle school are managed 
by the magistrate and some of the wealthier citizens of that fu and 
conforms to the regulations of the middle schools, it is classed as a 
public middle school. Any school established and supported by 
individuals or by a corporation conforming to all the regulations of 
the middle schools is entitled to the same recognition, privileges, and 
j)rotection as are given to the Government schools and will be 
known as a private middle school. Public buildings, nunneries, and 
temples may be rented for the use of these private schools. Not only 
are graduates of the higher primary schools entitled to enter these 
middle schools, but also all others who are able to pass by examina- 
tions the requirements for admission. The students are expected to 
pay tuition, but that is left for the provincials to settle. At the time 
of the opening of the middle schools there were few pupils qualified 
to enter, and so provision was made to admit, for the first five years, 
boys between the ages of 15 and 18 who had a good knowledge of 
Chinese classics and some knowledge of science. The Peking Daily 
News of May 31, 1908, states that the ministry of education has noti- 
fied the commissioners of education in the Provinces that hereafter 
only graduates of the higher primary schools are to be admitted into 
the middle schools. Reports are required of the middle schools the 
same as of the primary schools. The course of study as fiirst outlined 
extended through five years of 36 hours' recitations per week. The 
58 



MIDDLE SCHOOLS. 59 

following subjects were required : Morals, 1 hour through the course ; 
drawing, 1 hour; physical drill, 2 hours; Chinese classics, 9 hours; 
mathematics — algebra, geometry, and plane trigonometry — i hours; 
Chinese and foreign history, 2 hours; a foreign language, the first 
three years 8 Jiours, and the last two years 6 hours ; Chinese litera- 
ture, the first two years 4 hours, the third year 5 hours, and the last 
two years 3 hours ; geography, the first two years 3 hours, the third 
and fourth years 2 hours ; natural science, the first and second years, 
botany and zoology, 2 hours; the third and fourth years, physiology 
and mineralogy, 2 hours; the fifth year, geology, 2 hours; physical 
science, the fourth year, physics, 4 hours; and the fifth year, chem- 
istry, 4 hours ; political science and political economy, the fifth year, 
3 hours. 

It was soon discovered that the course of study was too difficult 
and needed to be modified. The ministry in a memorial acknowledged 
that only three or four students in a school were able to complete the 
work well in five years; that they had observed that there were too 
many subjects for the average student to get well, and recommended 
that the work in the middle schools should follow more closely the 
methods of the German schools ; and that both a technical course and a 
literary course should be offered in the middle schools. The memorial 
was granted April 20, 1909. The students entering the middle school 
may choose either course. In the technical department the major 
requirements are a foreign language^ mathematics, physics, chemistry, 
and biology; the minor subjects are Chinese classics and literature, 
history, geography, drawing, political science, and political economy. 
In the literary department the student must take for his major work 
Chinese classics and literature; a foreign langTiage, which may be 
English, German, French, Eussian^ or Japanese, but English and 
Japanese are recommended by the ministry of education as the more 
important languages, and Chihli Province requires English; history, 
which includes Chinese, Asiatic^ European, and American ; and geog- 
raphy. His minor subjects are mathematics, science, political science 
and political economy, drawing, and physical drill. All textbooks 
before being used in the schools must have the approval of the 
ministry of education. The schools are to be supplied with suitable 
laboratories, especially for the teaching of physics and chemistry. 
Charts of all kinds are to be supplied for the work in botany, zoology, 
physiology, and also good maps for teaching geography. Each school 
is expected to be able to accommodate from 300 to 400 pupils, and if 
the funds of the school will permit there should be accommodation 
for 600. Every school should seek to have no less than 30 pupils in 
each of the five classes, but in the beginning of many schools classes 
had to be formed with fewer pupils. In Chihli Province the rules 
permit the authorities to admit pupils from adjacent chous in order 



60 THE EDUCATIOaSTAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

to make up the number required in each class, but on no condition to- 
accept unqualified pupils. A student from one middle school may be 
admitted into another, provided he presents the proper certificate; 
but should a pupil secretly change from one school to another he i& 
subject to expulsion. Dormitories and dining rooms, also reading 
roomS;, are to be provided for the students in the compound. The 
principal and some of the teachers are expected to live in the com- 
pound, where they may have personal supervision of the students. 
The pupils can not leave the school premises except at stated times 
or by special permission. An athletic ground is provided for the 
pupils where they have military drill and various athletic sports. 
The teaching staff is composed of the principal, who has supervision 
of the school and complete control of his subordinates, teachers and 
assistant teachers, librarian, secretary, a proctor who looks after the 
general affairs of the school, and two proctors who have charge of 
the pupils' domitories. The instructors of the middle schools are 
to be graduates of the Chinese nomial colleges, who have obtained 
high rank in their classes, or graduates of normal colleges in foreign 
countries. The pupils pay tuition and board according to regula- 
tions, and should any change be found necessary in regard to the 
charges it must be reported to the educational commissioner and local 
magistrate. Pupils in Chihli are expected to furnish their clothing,, 
uniforms, and stationery. The pupils are required to take the fol- 
lowing examinations: (1) Monthly; (2) term examinations; (3) 
year examinations; (4) graduate examinations; (5) entrance ex- 
amin-ations for provincial colleges. The examination for promotion 
to the middle schools is held in the presence of the commissioner of 
education, and for promotion from the middle schools to the provin- 
cial college is held in the presence of the viceroy or governor and the 
commissioner of education. Any two of the three following parties 
may constitute an examining committee: (1) The district magistrate; 
(2) the board of education; (3) the educational club. After each 
of the examinations the standings must be published. This is usually 
done by posting all the names of the students^ with their standings, 
on the outside of the compound wall, near the main entrance to the 
school. The student whose name comes last, indicating that he is 
the poorest of his class, is said to " sit in the red chair." The magis- 
trate fixes the dates of the examinations, and after each yearly or 
graduating examination the officer in charge of the school sends to 
the educational com.missioner all the examination papers and books 
recording all the standings. The awarding of certificates belongs to 
the officer in charge of the school, but the conferring of rewards 
belongs to the educational commissioner, who in turn makes his report 
to the viceroy or governor of the Province. The following are the 
rewards granted to the graduates of the five-year course of the middle 



MIDDLE SCHOOLS. 61 

schools: To the first-grade students is given the "pa kung," to the 
second grade " you kung," to the third grade " sui kung." These 
three grades are recommended for admission to the provincial, normal, 
and technical colleges. To the fourth-grade student is granted the 
" ling sheng," and those below are given no reward. 

Up to 1909 there seems to have been many middle schools where 
little attention was paid to the requirements, and their students were 
permitted to graduate in four years or, in many cases, in even less. 
So great was this evil that an edict was issued January 19, 1909, for- 
bidding these violations and declaring that thereafter only graduates 
of the five-year course should receive rewards. 

In February, 1909, I visited the Paotingfu middle school, which is 
recognized as one of the best of the Government middle schools. I 
found the buildings poor and cheap looking, especially the two main 
buildings, which were two-story buildings with bedrooms below and 
four session rooms above. The furniture was poor and cheap, the 
blackboards were small and provided only for the teacher's use. 
The bedrooms would each accommodate about 40 students, each boy 
having a small stall separated from his neighbors by thin board par- 
titions. In front of each narrow stall was a table, at which the stu- 
dents could write and study. The floors were paved with bricks, mak- 
ing the room damp and insanitary. I judge this plan for the dormi- 
tories for the middle schools is not uncommon, as I had previously 
found similar ones in some of the Tientsin Government schools, but 
these had been fitted up out of temple buildings, while at Paotingfu 
the buildings had been newly built. There were about 200 students in 
the school. The laboratories were poor and had but little apparatus. 
The teaching that I saw was not of as high grade as I had hoped 
to see. As a whole, the school was a disappointment to me. Only a 
few days before I had visited some of the leading schools in Tientsin 
and had seen the excellent work that was being done in the private 
middle school of which Mr. Chang Pai Lin was principal. Mr. 
Chang is an exceptional man, and is recognized as one of the ablest 
educators in north China. The school buildings were new and the 
best planned of any middle school that I have seen in China. Many 
of the teachers were Mr. Chang's former pupils, who had imbibed 
their master's enthusiasm and were, in the absence of the principal- 
Mr. Chang at that time was abroad, having been sent by the Govern- 
ment on a commission — carrying on the school in an able manner. 
To be sure they labored under many disadvantages, trying to follow 
the prescribed course of 3G recitation periods per week, which left 
but little time outside of the class hours for jDreparation. This was 
not the fault of the teachers, but of the system which they were com- 
pelled to follow. The teacher of the Chinese classics is still the old 
Government graduate who teaches in the old orthodox way, explain- 



62 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP CHINA. 

ing every bit of the text himself according to the accepted com- 
mentaries. The pupil is not expected to do any reasoning and little 
thinking. All that is essential on his part, according to Dr. Arthur 
Smith, is that " he should have a memory like that of a phonograph." 
Perhaps the framers of the modem educational system in China ex- 
pected that much of the teaching of modern science would be taught 
in this manner. If not, why have they imposed so many recitations 
upon the modern school boy? Surely not until a more rational 
course of study is outlined for the Chinese student can we expect to 
find excellent results in the schools of the middle Kingdom. 

By January, 1908, there were 32 middle schools in Chihli Province, 
enrolling 2,125 pupils, and 101 pupils had been graduated. There 
were 157 teachers in these schools, with an average of 13,5 pupils per 
teacher. The amount received for the schools from all sources was 
207,097 taels, or $149,355. The examination for promotion to the 
middle schools is held in the presence of the commissioner of educa- 
tion. The examination of students of the middle schools for pro- 
motion to the provincial college is held in the presence of the viceroy 
or governor and the president of the board of education. 

PROVINCIAL COLLEGES. 

In each provincial capital there has been established a higher 
school (kao teng hsueh tang), more commonly called the provincial 
college. During the first five years after these colleges were estab- 
lished they could receive students who had a thorough laiowledge of 
the Chinese classics and had had one year's preparation in history, 
geography, mathematics, science, drawing, Japanese language, and 
English. In the beginning most of the work was necessarily pre- 
paratory for the college, and even in 1909 there was a middle school 
connected with the provincial college at Paotingfu. To-day only 
graduates of middle schools are received in these colleges. The 
curriculum requires three years of 36 hours per week. The gradu- 
ates are prepared to enter the colleges of the imperial university at 
Peking. The national system of education permits the establishing 
of but one such college in a Province, and requires that accommoda- 
tion should be made for at least 500 students, but any college may 
open with 200 students. Each Province must attend to the finances 
of its own college. At the end of the second semester of each year 
reports of the college must be sent to the provincial board of educa- 
tion, who in turn makes reports to the ministry of education. The 
curriculum provides for three courses of study: Course A prepares 
students to enter the imperial university colleges of Chinese classics, 
political science and law, literature, and commerce. Course B pre- 
pares for the colleges of science, agriculture, and engineering. 
Course C prepares for the college of medicine. 



PEOVINCIAL, COLLEGES. 
COURSE A. 



63 



Subject. 



Number of hours. 



First year. 



Second 
year. 



Third year. 



Ethics 

Chinese classics 

Chinese literature 

Foreign languages: 

EngUsh 

German or French 

History.... 

Geography 

Oratory 

Law 

PoUtical economy 

Military science 

Military drill and gymnastics. 

Total 



36 



In place of oratory in the second year a student may elect mathe- 
matics or physics. Students wishing to study law may elect 2 hours 
of Latin in the third year. Those who wish to specialize in Chinese 
classics may take mathematics in the second year in place of oratory, 
and physics in the third year in place of Chinese literature. Those 
who wish to specialize in German law or French law in the imperial 
university may change their hours in foreign languages as follows: 
English 4 hours during each of the three years, and German or 
French 14 hours during the first and second years and 12 hours the 
third year. 

COURSE B. 



Subjects. 



Number of hours. 



First year. 



Second 
year. 



Third year. 



Ethics 

Chinese classics 

Chinese literature 

English language 

German or French 

Mathematics 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Geology and mining 

Drawing 

Military science 

Military drill and gymnastics. 

Total 



64 



THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 



Those who wish to specialize in botany, zoology, or geology^ in the 
scientific college, or agriculture, may drop mathematics in the third 
year and substitute 4 hours' work in their special line of work. 
Those who wish to specialize in architecture, electrical engineering, 
naval construction, mathematics, physics, or astronomy, may drop 
2 hours in chemical experiments in the third year and substitute in 
its place a 3-hour course in surveying. A 2-hour course in Latin 
in the third year may be elected by any who wish to specialize in 
zoology, botany, geology, agriculture, and veterinary science. 



COURSE C. 





Number of hours. 


Subjects. 


First year. 


Second 
year. 


Third year. 


Ethics 


1 
2 
4 
2 
3 
4 
4 
13 
3 


1 
2 
2 
1 
3 
2 
3 
13 
3 
3 
3 


1 


Chinese classics 


2 


Chinese literature 


2 




2 


Military drill 


3 


Mathematics 




Biology 




German 


9 


English or French 


3 


Physics 


6 


Chemistry 




6 


Latin 




2 










Total 


36 


36 


36 







Those students who before entering the college had made a study of 
German might have their work in foreign languages as follows : 





Number of hours. 


Subjects. 


First year. 


Second 
year. 


Third year. 


German 


9 

7 


9 

7 


7 


EngUsh or French 


5 







Students can not enter the imperial university until they com- 
plete one of the above courses, but there is little doubt but that these 
courses of study will be changed, as the number of hours required is 
too many to secure good results. Special stress is placed upon the 
acquiring of modern languages, so that in the university the students 
may be able to read with ease textbooks and reference books written 
in a foreign language. The English language has first place in the 
colleges. In the North China Herald of November 7, 1908, page 313, 
is the following interesting item : "As a sign of the times we notice 



PROVINCIAL COLLEGES. 65 

that the educational board has cut out the teaching of Japanese in 
the imperial provincial college at Kaifeng and that only English and 
French are now taught, together with Chinese. Whether this is the 
case in other provincial colleges or not, it seems to be one of the many 
indications that China is turning away from the leadership of Japan, 
and is determined to drink for herself from the fountains of learning 
from which Japan drank, and not be content any longer with pre- 
digested diet." In an editorial of the same paper of December 11, 
1909, we read : " Not the least interesting feature of the curriculum 
of the Taian f u college ^ is the emphasis laid upon instruction in Eng- 
lish. It is * * * the predominant western language in the edu- 
cation of the Chinese, and there can be no doubt that they are wise to 
adhere to one foreign langaiage as the lingua franca of the Far East. 
To what an extent this position is already occupied by English is 
shown by the number of publications in our language connected with 
Chinese student life at home and abroad. Of these magazines we 
need only mention, by way of illustration. The World's Chinese 
Students' Journal, Shanghai." The regulations for the colleges re- 
quire dormitories with studies and bedrooms provided for the stu- 
dents, and residences are to be provided for the president and pro- 
fessors. Laboratories, apparatus, museums, and libraries are also 
to be provided. An athletic field is required, but this may be located 
outside of the compound. A director is at the head of the college 
looking after all the finances and general organization and super- 
vision. He is usually a man who has little or no knowledge of west- 
ern sciences and is wholly lacking in pedagogical training. He has 
no knowledge of how a college should be supervised and seldom holds 
the office for more than a year. This position is used as one of the 
rounds of the official ladder where he may imburse himself while 
waiting for some more desirable position. Below the director is the 
president, who is usually a man of wider learning. He superintends 
the work done by the teachers, and makes recommendations to the 
director of ways and means of bettering the work. It is necessary 
at the present to employ foreign teachers to conduct many of the 
classes, as the number of qualified teachers is not equal to the demand. 
The regulations require that the instructors in the provincial col- 
lege shall be such graduates of the university as have received high 
rank or graduates of a college or university in a foreign country. 
In the beginning of the establishing of these colleges, provision was 
made for the employing of any Chinese scholar thought qualified to 
teach in these colleges, and if it were not possible to secure a sufficient 
number of qualified Chinese instructors, to invite foreigners well 
qualified for the work. 

1 Provincial college of Shantung. 
9561°— 11 5 



66 THE EDUCATIONAL. SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

When I visited the provincial college of Chihli, at Paotingfii, in 
February, 1909, I found the college housed in good one-story Chinese 
buildings that had been used as the official palace of the viceroy 
before the removal of his office to Tientsin. I was entertained by my 
friend the president, Mr. Fei Chi Hao, a graduate of Oberlin Col- 
lege, with a master's degree from Yale University, He is well quali- 
fied for the position, which he had then held but a few months, but 
his hands are often tied because of the ignorance of the director. 
Were he at liberty to carry out his many excellent plans for im- 
provement, the good results might easily be doubled without any 
increase in expenditure. I was told that the annual expenses of the 
college were about $42,825. The director is supposed to receive 300 
taels, or about $215, per month, and each of the three foreign pro- 
fessors a like amount for the first three years and, if the contract is 
renewed, an increase of 50 taels per month. The president's salary 
is doubtless not less than that of the director. At the time of our 
visit the college enrolled 260 students, but this number included one 
class from the middle school. The middle-school students were re- 
quired to pay 3 taels per month for board, but the college students 
were not required to pay for anything, even their books being fur- 
nished them. Some of the native teachers were graduates of the 
Tientsin Naval College and were doing good work. Classes were 
formed in both the literary and scientific courses. English is the 
principal foreign language, and the classes were doing good work. 
Some French was being talked, but no German, though it was hoped 
later to secure an instructor who could teach it. Some of the work 
in drawing was excellent. I found some of the classes in mathe- 
matics taught by lectures, the instructor working the problems on 
the blackboard and the students copying with a Chinese brush pen. 
One class in geometry had over 50 pupils. The laboratories were not 
well equipped. Apparatus of very inferior quality had been pur- 
chased of the Japanese at about one-half the price it would cost in 
Germany. I understand that Japan has been catering for the Chi- 
nese trade in school supplies, but as the Chinese appreciate and are 
not unwilling to pay for good quality, I believe Japan can not long 
keep this trade. The college had no library, but the reading room 
Avas supplied with 10 newspapers and magazines. The students 
studied in rooms having from 4 to 6 tables, with room for 8 students 
at a table. The dormitories accommodate 8 boys in a room. In the 
school year of 1907-8 there were in the college 207 students ; 37 had 
graduated from the college. There were 9 teachers, 7 Chinese, 1 
American, and 1 Englishman. The average number of students per 
teacher was 23. The cost per student for the year was 243.59 taels, 
or about $174. 



UNIVEKSITIES. 67 

In December, 1909, in the provincial college at Chinanf u, Shantung, 
there were 268 students in attendance, 107 taking the literary course, 
69 the scientific course, while 92 were in the preparatory course. All 
were taking English, and in addition German or French, mostly the 
former. The Peking Daily News reported July 17, 1908, that many 
provincial college students failed to secure their diplomas because 
they were unable to meet the requirements of the course. 

The examinations of the graduate students of the provincial college 
are held in the presence of the viceroy or governor of the Province, a 
commissioner of education (hsueh cheng) , and a chief examiner ap- 
pointed by the Throne (ta chu kao). The following rewards are 
bestowed upon the graduates: (1) Those who are in the first grade 
are given the chu jen degree and may enter the imperial university 
if they choose ; otherwise they are given the official title of chih chou 
and are candidates for positions in the different Provinces. (2) The 
second grade are granted the same honors as the first grade, except 
they are given the official title of chih hsien or district magistrate. 
(3) The third grade are given the same as the second grade. (4) The 
fourth grade are required to stay another year in the college for study, 
and if in another year's examination they fall below the third grade, 
or should they refuse to remain another year in the college, they are 
granted a certificate, but no degree or official title. (5) To the fifth 
grade no reward is granted. 

UNIVERSITIES. 

The educational code of China provides for an imperial university 
composed of eight departments or colleges: (1) Chinese classics; 
(2) law; (3) literature; (4) medicine; (5) sciences; (6) agriculture; 
(7) engineering; (8) commerce; and a graduate school to be located 
at Peking ; also such other universities as may be established later by 
the Provinces, and which shall not be obliged to furnish instruction 
in more than three departments as outlined for the imperial university. 
So far there have been established, besides the imperial university, the 
Tientsin University, and the Shansi University, located at Taiyuenfu. 

The imperial university up to 1910 has been confined to the work in 
its two preparatory departments, preparatory college (ta hsueh yu 
ke), and the preparatory technical college (ta hsueh shih ke). In 
the spring of 1909 about 100 students were graduated from these 
preparatory departments, but the colleges of the university were not 
prepared to admit students before 1910. On the 6th of March, 1910, 
examinations were held for admission to the university, but only a 
very few candMates presented themselves. This no doubt was largely 
due to so many of the advanced students having gone abroad for 
study, also that the provincial colleges have not been able to gradu- 
ate many students, and again there are so many lucrative positions 



68 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

now open to men who have the qualifications for entrance to the 
university that manj^ are induced to forego a university training. 
The university is being built outside of Peking city, southwest of 
the Tartar city, near the fu Cheng Men. Two million taels, or about 
$1,425,000, have been set aside by the board of finance for the con- 
struction of the buildings, and are to be paid in four yearly install- 
ments. The campus contains over 30 acres. The Government ex- 
pects to allow about 200,000 taels for the annual budget. The presi- 
dent is under the control of the ministry of education, and has gen- 
eral charge of the university and its different colleges. Each college 
has at its head a dean, who exercises a general supervision over all 
matters connected with the college; a director of studies, whose du- 
ties are to superintend the instruction given in the college; a super- 
visor of the dormitories; and a superintendent to look after minor 
affairs. All these officers are responsible to the president. The pro- 
fessors and assistant professors of the university are to be graduates 
of the graduate school of the imperial university, or graduates of 
universities in foreign countries. At the opening of the university 
any Chinese student qualified to teach any special required line of 
work may be employed. Foreigners may also be employed. The 
university council is to be composed of the president, the deans of all 
the colleges, the professors, and assistant professors. The president 
of the university convokes the university council and presides at its 
meetings. Matters to be submitted to a meeting of the university 
council for its deliberation are as follows: (1) The institution or abo- 
lition of a course of study in any college; (2) the questions concern- 
ing the chairs in the university; (3) regulations for the internal gov- 
ernment in the university; (4) granting of degrees of the graduate 
school ; (5) questions put by the ministry of education or by the presi- 
dent of the university. Faculty meetings shall be held in each col- 
lege, composed of all the professors and assistant professors. The 
dean of the college shall call the meetings and preside over them. 
The matters to be submitted to the faculty meeting of each college for 
its deliberation are as follows: (1) Curriculum of studies; (2) ex- 
amination of students; (3) qualifications of candidates for degrees; 
(4) questions put by the ministry of education or by the president of 
the university. In case of a disagreement between the president and 
the university council in regard to matters concerning higher edu- 
cation, the question may be submitted to the ministry of education 
for settlement. All courses offered in the colleges cover three years' 
work, except the two courses in the law college and the course for 
physicians in the college of medicine, which require four years' work. 
The graduate school (tung ju yuan) requires five years' work. The 
present outlined courses are supposed to remain unchanged until 
after the first classes of the college have graduated, when the presi- 



UNIVERSITIES. 



69 



dent of the university and the deans of the colleges may be able to 
make intelligent changes to meet the future special needs to prepare 
men for the greatest service to the Empire. 

The College of Chinese Classics offers 11 courses, each requiring 
24 hours per week. These courses are so unique that we give an out- 
line of the course in the Book of Changes (I Ching). The first 
course of study offered in the College of Chinese Classics, with the 
major subject in the Book of Changes (I Ching), is as follows: 



Subjects. 



Number of hours. 



First year. 



Second 
year. 



Third year. 



Book of changes . 



Minor odes 

Chinese etymology 

Selections from the classics, sanctioned by the Throne 

Complete Chinese history, sanctioned by the Throne 

Comparative study of political institutions and laws of all the 

Chinese dynasties 

History of education, China and foreign nations 

History of foreign sciences - 

Geography of China and foreign countries 

General history 

One foreign language— English, French, Russian, German, or Japa- 



Total. 



The other 10 courses in the Chinese classics are the same with the 
exception of a major subject. The following majors are substituted 
for the Book of Changes, and each course bears the name of the 
classic taken as the major: (2) Book of History (Shu Ching) ; (3) 
Book of Odes (Shih Ching) ; (4) Spring and Autumn Annals (Tso 
Chuan) ; (5) Rites of Chou (Chou Li) ; (6) Three Annals (San 
Chuan) ; (7) Manners and Rites (I Li) ; (8) Book of Rites (Li 
Chi); (9) Analects (Lun Yu) ; (10) Morals; (11) Mencius. 

The object of these courses is to make a very careful study of all 
commentaries on the major subjects. On the Book of Changes 
(I Ching) there are 500 different conmientaries ; on the Book of His- 
tory (Shu Ching), 150; on the Book of Odes (Shih Ching), 150; and 
the Spring and Autumn Annals (Tso Chuan) has 250 commentaries. 

The college of law has two courses, political science and law. 
Each course requires 24 hours' recitations per week. The course is 
planned for four recitations per day. Sundays are now used for 
holidays in all the higher grade schools and colleges. Below we give 
the course in law : 



70 



THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP CHINA. 
The course m law. 



Subjects. 



Number of hours. 



First year. 



Second 
year. 



Third year. 



Fourth 
year. 



Elementary law 

Laws of the present dynasty 

Chinese history of criminal law 

Chinese history of political institutions 

Comparisonof political institutions of foreign countries. 

Constitutions of foreign countries 

Foreign civil law 

Foreign criminal law 

Commercial law of foreign countries 

Diplomacy 

International law 



SUPPLEMENTS. 

Administrative law of foreign countries . 

Domestic economy 

Political economy 



Total. 



The college of literature offers the following nine courses: (1) 
Chinese history; (2) foreign history ; (3) Chinese and foreign geog- 
raphy; (4) Chinese literature; (5) English literature; (6) French 
literature; (7) German literature; (8) Russian literature; (9) Japa- 
nese literature. The number of hours per week in all courses is 24. 
The following is the outline for the course in English : 



Subjects. 



Number of hours. 



First year. 



Second 
year. 



Third year. 



English language and literature 

History of modern English literature 

English history 

Latin 

Philology 

Education 

Chinese literature 

Total 



24 



The courses in French, German, Russian, and Japanese are the 
same in substance except substituting the special language of the 
course for English. In the other courses offered 6 hours per week 
of some one foreign language are required throughout the course. 
Besides the subjects named in the course of English literature are 
the following subjects offered in addition as electives : Chinese his- 



UNIVERSITIES. 



71 



tory, foreign ancient history, elocution, psychology, sociology, an- 
thropology, Greek, Italian, Dutch, German, French, Russian, and 
Japanese. Surely enough is offered to satisfy the most ambitious 
scholar. Another proof of how little the framers of the educational 
system knew about western learning. 

In the medical college two courses are offered, the course for 
physicians and the course in pharmacy. In the course for physicians 
courses in Chinese medicines are taught, but because of Chinese 
customs and ceremonies it is not possible to teach anatomy and 
osteology as is done in foreign countries, so these subjects are to 
be taught by use of charts and models. Stress is laid upon using the 
best Chinese medical books for reference. In one Government medi- 
cal college in Peking courses were given in the use of both Chinese 
and foreign medicine — one by a quack Chinese doctor, the other by 
a Chinese who was a graduate of an American medical college. 
The remaining colleges and their courses of study are modeled 
after those of the Japanese universities, with some very slight changes 
to meet the demands of Chinese conditions. Below are arranged 
the colleges and courses of study under each, with a statement of 
the number of recitation hours required each week in the entire course. 
The credit for laboratory work is not given in the schedule. Under 
the physics and chemistry courses the statement is made that the 
lecture and recitation hours are few, but the hours for laboratory 
work are unlimited until the subject is thoroughly understood. In 
the college of agriculture the laboratory work is considered the more 
important. The Japanese universities have no college of commerce 
as have the Chinese. In Japan commercial law is included in the 
political science course. 

COLLEGE OF SCIENCES. 



Courses of study. 



Number of hours. 



First year. 



Second 
year. 



Third year. 



Mathematics. 
Astronomy . . , 
Physics 



Chemistry 

Zoology and botany. 
Geology 



COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. 



Agriculture 

Agricultural chemistry. 
Forestry 

Veterinary medicine 



22 


22 


18 


14 


22 


22 


20 


32 



72 



THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 
COLLEGE OP ENGINEERING. 



(bourses of study. 



Number of hours. 



First year. 



Second 
year. 



Third year. 



Architecture 

Mechanical engineering. . . 

Naval architecture 

Technology of arms 

Electrical engineering 

Civil engineering 

Chemical engineering 

Technology of explosives. 
Mining and metallurgy. . . 



COLLEGE OF COMMERCE. 


Banking and ins^rancp . 


24 
24 
24 


2i 

24 
24 


24 


Trade and traffic 


24 


Taxes and customs 


24 







Each student upon entering the university must present a bond 
signed by an official living in Peking, but who is a resident of the 
same Province as that from which the student comes. Dormitories 
are to be provided for all the students. The officers and members 
of the faculty are about the same as those in the Japanese universities. 

The graduate school admits graduates of the colleges and appli- 
cants who are not graduates of colleges, who can pass the examina- 
tion for admission given by a committee appointed at a faculty meet- 
ing of the college to which his chosen subject belongs. A graduate 
student is placed under the supervision of the dean of the college 
chosen, and the dean may appoint a professor or professors to super- 
intend the student's investigations. The student at the end of each 
college year must make a report of the results of his investigations 
to the dean of the college, and the dean presents it to the faculty for 
inspection. If the work of the student is not satisfactory, he may 
be dismissed by a vote of the faculty. After a residence of two 
years in the graduate school the student may secure permission to 
live outside of the city, providing it does not retard his graduate 
work. At the end of five years the student may present a thesis, and 
if approved by the faculty it shall be presented to the president 
of the ministry of education, who will memorialize the Throne, rec- 
ommending the conferring upon the student suitable rewards. 

The Tientsin University in January, 1908, enrolled 89 students, 
39 having graduated. Its faculty numbered 14, of whom 5 were 
Americans, 2 Japanese, and 7 Chinese, making an average of 6.3 
students per teacher. The cost per student for the year was 764 



UNIVERSITIES. 73 

taels, or about $545. There were that year 5 classes, 1 in the law 
college, 2 in the civil enginering, and 2 in the mining course. In the 
summer of 1908 modified curricula were submitted through Viceroy 
Yang to the ministry of education and received their sanction. Grad- 
uates of the provincial college at Paotingfu are sent to this univer- 
sity, but up to 1909 these students were required to take some pre- 
paratory work before entering the university courses. President 
Wang has studied in England and is a most able administrator, and 
is much respected by the faculty and students. There is little doubt 
but that the highest grade of all Government college work is being 
done in the Tientsin University. Up to 1909 all of its work was 
being carried on in one-story Chinese buildings, but these will soon 
give way to more convenient buildings of foreign architecture. Its 
outlook is most promising. 

The Shansi University has a unique history. In the settlement of 
the Boxer troubles of 1900 the Chinese plenipotentiaries asked Dr. 
Timothy Richards to aid them in coming to an agreement with the 
foreign powers as to the reparation to be made for the massacres in 
the Province of Shansi. After consultation with various mission- 
aries in Shansi, Dr. Richards proposed that instead of indemnities 
for the lives of those missionaries who had been murdered in the 
outbreak the Government should pay annually for 10 years the sum 
of 50,000 taels as a fine toward the founding of a university for 
Shansi Province, and by its teachings end the ignorance which had 
been the chief cause of those outrages. The Government accepted 
the proposal and placed the administration of the university and 
its funds in the hands of Dr. Richards for a period of 10 years, when 
the institution was to revert to the provincial government. In 1902, 
when Dr. Richards reached Taiyuenfu, he found that a college had 
been started in the city by the provincial authorities in response to 
the edict commanding the establishment of colleges in each provin- 
cial capital. A compromise or understanding was agreed to by 
which the Government consented to the two institutions being united 
to form a university. The college to be established by Dr. Richards 
was to form the western department, which should have the super- 
vision and control of all western subjects of study, and the college 
already started was to be the Chinese department of the university, 
and to confine its work to the teaching of Chinese studies. The 
finances and management of the western department are under the 
control of foreigners, while those of the Chinese department are un- 
der the supervision of the Chinese. The work has of necessity been 
confined to the grade of teaching found in the provincial colleges. 
The college has an excellent foreign faculty, and their work has been 
of a high grade. Suitable college buildings of Chinese architecture 
were early constructed. The western department has a preparatory 



74 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

school of three years and college courses in law, medicine, science, 
literature, and engineering. In 1905 there were 400 students in 
attendance in both departments. The annual expenses of the uni- 
versity were 92,000 taels. The hsiu tsai (A. B.) degree was required 
of all students for entrance. In 1906, 300 students competed for 5 
vacancies in the western department. In 1908 there were 200 students 
in this department. The graduation examinations of the imperial 
university are to be held in the presence of the president of the 
ministry of education (Hsueh Wu Ta Chen), together with a com- 
missioner appointed by the throne (Tsung Tsai). The graduates 
are divided into the usual five grades: (1) The first grade is hon- 
ored with the Hanlin degree (LL. D.), and may enter the graduate 
school; (2) the second grade also receives the Hanlin degree, but of 
a little lower rank than that given to the graduates of the first grade ; 
these graduates may also enter the graduate school should they de- 
sire to do so; (3) the third grade receives the chin shih (Ph. D.) 
degree, and is given an official rank of the sixth order and assigned 
to some one of the different boards; (4) the fourth grade is given 
the chin shih degree, but is required to take another year's work at 
the university and another examination, but should any prefer not to 
remain for study, or in the following examination fail to raise their 
grade, they are given the official rank of a district magistrate and 
appointed to some position in the provinces; (5) the fifth grade 
receives no reward. No rewards have yet been determined upon for 
the graduates of the graduate school. These men, having completed 
the "entire 25-year outlined course of study for the national schools, 
should be granted higher honors than the Hanlin degree, and when 
there are candidates for these honors the ministry of education 
promises that suitable rewards shall be bestowed upon all successful 
candidates. 



CHAPTER VII. 

NORMAL, TECHNICAL, AND MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS. 

NORMAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 

When the modern educational system was established in China the 
Government realized that the various schools to be successful must 
have qualified teachers. Accordingly it at once adopted the two 
possible methods of securing them — ^the one, that of preparing 
teachers itself, and the other, that of sending students to foreign 
countries for training. Normal schools were opened in the pro- 
vincial capitals and later in the larger centers. A school was estab- 
lished under the general supervision of the imperial university, 
which later developed into a normal college and is no longer under 
the control of the university. Owing to the urgent need of teachers 
of the English language for the middle schools of Chihli Province, 
the Tientsin University in 1906 added a normal department, which 
was supplied with students taken from the various classes in the 
university. At the end of a year 25 graduates had completed the 
course laid down and were distributed among the middle schools of 
the Province. A second class was formed in 1907, composed of 
students sent to the university from the provincial college. Thirty- 
six students received their diplomas in 1908, after which the normal 
work in the university was discontinued. Students were selected 
and sent to study in the normal schools of Japan, and upon com- 
pleting their courses of study in Japan they returned, in many cases 
in less than a year, and were assigned positions in the schools of the 
Province. Most of the Provinces sent students to the normal schools 
of Japan, until at one time they were numbered by the thousands. 
Meanwhile China lost no time in establishing normal schools by the 
hundreds throughout the Empire. By 1908 in Chihli Province alone, 
outside of Peking city, there were 98 normal schools, having 165 in- 
structors, 3,448 students, 5,608 graduates, with annual receipts of 
270,672 taels, or $193,337, while the two normal colleges reported 46 
instructors, 935 students, 533 gTaduates, and annual receipts of 
156,228 taels, or $111,591. The average annual expense that year for 
each student in the normal school was 48.21 taels, or $34.43, and in 
the normal colleges 170.33 taels, or $121.66. 

The normal schools were established to train teachers for the 
lower and higher primary schools. Graduates of the higher primary 

75 



76 THE EDUCATIOaSTAL SYSTEM OP CHINA. 

four-year course are admitted to the normal schools. At first there 
being no graduates of higher primary schools, students were selected 
from the literati, who were especially good in Chinese composition. 
It is expected that each prefecture and district will provide and 
maintain a normal school that will accommodate at least 150 students. 
The pupils were not to be required to pay tuition, but those who 
wished could be self-supporting. The subjects taught in these schools 
are 12 in number — ethics and morals, Chinese classics, Chinese liter- 
ature, pedagogy, history, geography, mathematics, natural sciences, 
physical sciences, penmanship, drawing, and drill. Two courses of 
study were outlined — a long course and a short course. The long 
course covers 5 years of 45 weeks, having 36 hours' recitations per 
week. Special pains are taken to train pupils to be patriotic, to be 
faithful to the Emperor, and filial to parents. The students are 
instructed to restrain their words as well as their actions, and to 
observe such laws of health as will develop in them strong constitu- 
tions. They are also taught to form habits of study and to do inde- 
pendent work. The pupils entering the five-year course of study are 
to be between the ages of 18 and 25. Those entering the short course 
between 25 and 30 years of age. During the first four months of a 
student's residence he is put upon probation, and only worthy stu- 
dents are retained. Necessity compelled the normals at first to offer 
short courses of study in order to secure temporarily teachers for 
the primary schools. Many schools offered one year and a few 
schools at first offered six months' courses. The Government re- 
quires the following service of graduates of normal schools: Gov- 
ermnent students graduating from the long course are required to 
give six years' service teaching in the schools to which they may be 
assigned; self-supporting students are required to give three years. 
Government graduates of the short course give three years, while the 
self-supporting students give but two. Should a graduate refuse to 
render this service, he must pay to the school the full amount it 
has cost to educate him. After giving the required time of service, 
the student may, if he wishes, enter the normal college. In the 
normal schools the teachers and assistants are chosen from graduates 
of the normal colleges and from foreign normal colleges. Most 
of the foreign teachers are Japanese. In the beginning it was neces- 
sary to employ some Chinese teachers who had received no normal 
training. Graduates of the five-year course receive the following 
degrees and rewards : To the first grade, " pa kung ; " second grade, 
" yu kung ; " third grade, " lin kung." The first and second grades 
are made instructors in the higher primary schools, and the third 
grade are made assistant instructors. 

The regulations required that a normal college should be estab- 
lished at Peking and at each provincial capital, which would accom- 



NX>EMAL, SCHOOLS. 



77 



modate at least 240 students. Graduates of the normal and middle 
schools were to be admitted. These colleges have three departments, 
(1) common school studies or a general course; (2) special studies; 
and (3) graduate studies. The general course requires 1 year of 36 
hours, and gives instruction in 8 subjects: Ethics, Chinese classics, 
Chinese literature, Japanese language, English language, logic, 
mathematics, and military tactics. The department of special 
studies offers 4 courses of 3 years each of 36 hours recitations per 
week. These courses are intended to prepare teachers as specialists 
in certain subjects. In the A class 13 subjects are required : Ethics, 
Chinese classics, Chinese literature, history, pedagogy, psychology, 
authors of Chou an Chin dynasties, English language, German or 
French language, logic, zoology, physical sciences, and military tac- 
tics. The following is the outline of course B : 



Subjects. 


Number of hotirs. 


First year. 


Second 
year. 


Third year. 


Ethics 


2 
6 

1 


2 
5 
1 

4 
1 
6 
6 
5 


2 


Chinese classics 


4 


Chinese literature 


1 


Pedagogy 


8 


Psychology 


1 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
3 
3 




Mathematics 


6 


Physics 


7 


Chemistry 


5 


English language 




Drawing 






Mechanics 


3 
3 




Military tactics 


3 






Total 


36 


36 


36 







Course C has 12 subjects offered : Ethics, Chinese classics, Chinese 
literature, pedagogy, psychology, geography, history, political sci- 
ence, finance, English language, zoology, and military tactics. Ger- 
man is elective. 

Course D offers 14 subjects: Ethics, Chinese classics, Chinese lit- 
erature, pedagogy, psychology, botany, zoology, physical science, 
mining, geology, agriculture, English language, drawing, and mili- 
tary tactics. German and chemistry are offered as electives. 

In the graduate department the following 10 subjects are offered, 
of which the student must elect at least 5 : Ethics, pedagogj^, school 
administration, school supervision, aesthetics, experimental psychol- 
ogy, school hygiene, professional education, child study, and practice 
teaching. After completing his subjects the student is required to 
write a thesis upon his work. The course is one year in length, and 



78 • THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP CHINA, 

the number of hours is left to the discretion of the faculty. Students 
who wish to enter the general course must be recommended by their 
home prefect or magistrate. Each student must furnish two guar- 
antors, acceptable to the school, that he will faithfully discharge his 
duties. He must also declare his intention to make teaching a pro- 
fession and promise to render the service required by the Government 
after his graduation ; namely, to serve for a period of six years, the 
first two years to be at the disposal of the president of the ministry 
of education and the viceroy or governor of his Province, and to ac- 
cept any position to which he is appointed. Any graduate refusing 
such service shall be required, as a fine, to pay back the full amount 
of the cost of his education. After performing the full period of 
service, the student may, if he so desires, enter the university. Con- 
nected with the college is to be a model primary school and also a 
middle school. The professors of the normal college are to be gradu- 
ates of high standing of special colleges of the imperial university, 
or graduates of normal colleges or universities of a foreign country. 
It was allowable when the colleges were first opened to employ any 
Chinese teacher thought to be qualified. Graduates of the normal 
college are divided into five grades : The first three grades receive the 
degree of chu jen (M. A.) and the honorary title of the "Fifth 
Order," and are appointed professors in the middle and normal 
schools. The other two grades are treated as in other schools. 

The normal college at Paotingfu is located about three quarters of 
a mile outside of the city wall, and was one of the first normal col- 
leges in China. Most of the teaching was done, at the time of my 
visit, by the teacher lecturing and the pupils taking notes. In one 
class of Chinese history the teacher had his lecture printed, and each 
pupil was furnished a copy to consult during the lecture. The 
classes were very large, too large, in fact, to obtain the best results. 
The laboratories were fairly well equipped. Courses were at that 
time being offered of one-half year, one year, two years, three years, 
and four years. Only one four-year class had graduated. Doubt- 
less this four-year course contains some work that belongs to the nor- 
mal school. Courses were offered in vocal and instrumental music, 
also in manual training and kindergarten work. 

The North China Normal College is located at Tientsin, and has 
an excellent equipment. In February, 1909, I was told that it en- 
rolled 330 students, and that there were 270 students in its graduating 
class. This college is said to be the largest and best in the Empire. 
Its faculty was composed of 8 Japanese and 4 Chinese professors. 
Sixty-six students were pursuing courses in both the Japanese and 
English languages. The students ranged from 20 to 35 years of age. 
The laboratories are well fitted for all kinds of normal-college work 
It also has a library and reading room. 



TECHNICALi SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, 79 

"While good work is being done in other schools, it is expected that 
in the near future the National Normal College, just built in the 
southern city in Peking, will be the model for all other normal 
colleges in the Empire. 

TECHNICAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 

The fundamental object in establishing technical schools is to en- 
courage Chinese agriculture, commerce, architecture, and engineering. 
The Government hopes as soon as possible to establish outside of the 
university colleges the following technical schools: (1) Teachers' 
technical training schools of the same grade as those of normal col- 
leges; (2) polytechnical colleges of the rank of provincial colleges; 

(3) middle technical schools of the same rank as the middle schools; 

(4) primary technical schools of as high rank as the higher primary 
schools; (5) fishery schools of the same grade as the middle school; 
and (6) industrial schools having courses equivalent to the courses 
of primary and middle schools. The main difficulties in the estab- 
lishment of these schools have been lack of qualified teachers and 
funds to support such schools. The Government has sent students 
abroad to prepare for teaching in these schools and has urged the 
wealthy to contribute for the establishment of such schools. We have 
already referred to the technical departments of the universities. In 
the Imperial Polytechnic Institute of Shanghai courses are offered 
in civil, mechanical, electrical, and marine engineering.^ The Tang- 
shan Engineering and Mining College is located at Tangshan, in 
Chihli Province. It is supported by the Imperial Railways of North 
China and the Chinese Engineering & Mining Co. It has excellent 
buildings, a fair equipment, and its location, being near to the rail- 
way shops and the mines, gives its students in engineering and min- 
ing special advantages. It is expected to graduate its first class 
in 1911. 

In the report for Chihli Province for the year ending February, 
1908, we find reported 5 technical schools above middle schools with 
an attendance of 433 students and having graduated 182 students. 
The number of teachers employed was 44; the amount received for 
the annual expenses was 272,319 taels, or about $123,000 ; the annual 
cost per student was 177.41 taels, or $126.72. There were that year 
in Chihli 17 technical and special primary schools, enrolling 446 
pupils, having graduated 38. The number of teachers employed in 
these schools was 40 and the cost per pupil for the year 41.66 taels, 
or $29.74. 

Agricultural schools and colleges were among the first schools 
to be established in the Provinces. Nearly every Province has its 

1 North China Herald, Aug. 21, 1909, p. 449. 



80 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

agricultural college, many of the larger towns have their agricul- 
tural schools, and many of the smaller towns have half-day agricul- 
tural schools, until to-day there are many of these schools scattered 
over the Empire. In many of these larger institutions the instruc- 
tion has been given by Japanese professors. Provincial agricultural 
boards have been organized, also branch boards in many of the fus, 
chous, and hsiens. Some of the Government students studying abroad 
are making a specialty of agriculture. Mr. M. H. Tang, who grad- 
uated in 1908 from Cornell University with a master's degree, is 
now the director of the agricultural college at Shanghai. Often 
the directors have been men who had no knowledge of agriculture or 
of college management. The day is not far distant when China will 
be able to have her own staff and faculty of trained men for each of 
her agricultural colleges. 

The Kuang Si Provincial Agricultural College, located outside of 
Kueilin was opened in May, 1909, with accommodation for 140 
students. Its director, a capable, enlightened officer, hoped to engage 
German specialists as instructors for the college. It has been stated 
that agricultural commissioners were to be appointed for each 
Province to supervise all agricultural schools.^ 

A few schools of commerce are being established outside of the im- 
perial university, and are under the control of the board of commerce. 
A large commercial college with commodious buildings has just been 
established in Peking to accommodate several hundred students. 

Many industrial schools of various grades have been established. 
One of the first was a private industrial school established soon after 
the Boxer troubles by Huang Sze En, a Hanlin,^ in the Southern 
City of Peking, for the benefit of those without employment, and 
several trades were taught. This school, although still in existence, 
has been surpassed by a number of Government schools that have 
lately been established. There are in Peking at least 7 schools of 
this gTade, and outside of the city there are several being established 
for the Manchu people. These schools have a twofold purpose, 
namely, to educate boys and men to do skilled work in many indus- 
tries and also to train men who may teach them to others. The board 
of commerce has established in Peking one of these training schools 
at a cost of 100,000 taels, or over $70,000. It is well equipped and 
teaches spinning, weaving, glass blowing, carpentry, dyeing, leather 
work, well digging, rattan work, embroidery, drawing, and lacquer- 

1 Pekin Daily News, December 9, 1908. 

2 This capable man, because of his proforeign tendencies, was imprisoned under sen- 
tence of death in the summer of 1900. After the relief of Peking he was rescued from 
the imperial prison through the foreign legations. Since the establishment of this indus- 
trial school his former rank has been restored and additional honors conferred upon him 
by the Imperial Government. 



MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS. 81 

ing. It enrolls about 500 students, who come from all parts of the 
Empire. There is another school in the city under the control of the 
same board, which gives a more general education in addition to 
teaching the above industries. It has about 30 Japanese instructors 
and 300 students. Connected with this industrial school is a higher 
technical school, with about 200 students who are being prepared in 
engineering. In 1909 there must have been at least 2,000 students in 
the industrial schools of Peking. Tientsin and other large cities have 
established industrial schools similar to those in Peking. 

The North China Industrial College is located at Tientsin, and has 
good buildings and equipment. In February, 1909, it had about 100 
students. Its faculty was composed of 1 European, 1 American, 2 
Japanese, and 7 Chinese. I was informed that a student, after com- 
pleting the course of study in chemistry, would be able to enter the 
junior class in chemical engineering at Cornell University. 

Many small schools teaching one or two trades have been estab- 
lished in the smaller cities and towns from a business or philanthropic 
motive, and are doing a good work by training penniless persons, 
making them self-supporting. 

MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS. 

The Boxer outbreak closed the Tung Wen College, and the Col- 
lege of Languages (I Hsueh Kuan) was organized to take its place 
and carry on practically the same work, preparing students to fill 
the same positions as did the Tung Wen College. The College of 
Languages is located in the Tartar City of Peking, and offers a 
course of 5 years of 36 hours per week to 120 students, who are given 
free tuition, board, and books, and also to special students, who pay 
tuition and other expenses connected with the college. Tuition was 
$1.50, and board from $1.40 to $2.50 per month ; dormitory privileges 
were $5 per year, and $10 had to be deposited for uniforms. Eng- 
lish, French, German, Russian, and Japanese languages are taught, 
and each student is required to specialize in one of these languages. 
Graduates of the middle schools, after taking an entrance examina- 
tion, may be admitted to the College of Languages. At the time of 
the opening of the college, students who had some knowledge of a 
foreign language were admitted after an examination. Students 
of the Chin Shih Kuan, who understood a foreign language, could 
be admitted. In May, 1907, there being so few graduates of the 
middle schools, the ministry of education granted permission for 
students who had completed two years' work in the middle schools 
to be accepted as students of the College of Languages. 
9561°— 11 6 



82 



THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 



Course of study for the College of Ltmguages. 



Number of hours. 



Subjects. 


First 
year. 


Second 
year. 


Third 

year. 


Fourth 
year. 


Fifth 
year. 


Ethics 


1 
3 
2 

2 

16 
4 
2 
2 
2 
2 


1 
3 
2 
2 

16 
4 


1 
2 
2 
2 

18 
3 


1 
2 
2 
2 

18 
3 


1 


Chinese literature, classics, and composition , . 

History — Chinese, Asiatic, and western 


2 
2 


Geography — Chinese, Asiatic, and western 




One foreign language, English, French, Russian, 
German, or Japanese 


18 


Mathematics 




Physiology and mineralogy 




Physics 










Drawing 


2 
2 
2 
2 








Military drill 


2 


2 


2 


Botany and zoology 














Diplomacy 




3 
3 


3 
3 


3 


PoUtical economy 






3 


Education 






3 


Geology 










2 














Total 


36 


36 


36 


36 


36 







1 Hsueh Pu Kuan Pao, vol. 38, Dept. 3, p. 188. 

In February, 1909, when visiting the college, I was told that the 
enrollment was 360 ; that the English department registered 130 stu- 
dents; the German, 50; the French, 110; and the Eussian, 60. There 
was at that time no Japanese department, but all students were re- 
quired to devote one or two hours per week to the study of that 
language. The English classes were taught by two foreign profess- 
ors, one being a doctor of philosophy from Yale, and three Chinese 
assistants; the French was taught by two foreign professors and 
one Chinese assistant; the German, by a foreign professor and a 
Chinese assistant ; and the Russian by a Chinese professor. The 
salary of the foreign professors was from $400 to $645 Mexican per 
month. The Chinese instructors received from 50 to 150 taels per 
month. The old Tung Wen College was supported by the imperial 
maritime customs, but the College of Languages is supported and 
superintended by the ministry of education. The monthly expenses 
were reported to be about 7,600 taels, or $5,429. The director of the 
college was a member of the ministry of education. He was sup- 
posed to visit the college three or four times a week, and he receives 
no salary for his services to the college, but his traveling expenses are 
allowed. I learned the following facts in regard to the second class 
in English, which contained 40 students : They represented 15 prov- 
inces ; the oldest was 33 years of age, the youngest 19, the average age 
Avas 23 years ; 27 were married, some having as many as 4 children ; 
14 had Chinese degrees and 2 had Chinese official titles. In the 
spring of 1909, 39 students were graduated and granted the degree 



MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS. 



83 



of chu jen (A. M.). Some of these graduates were assigned to the 
ministry of education, and the others were divided by lots among the 
following ministries: Foreign affairs, agriculture, and commerce; 
but in case any Chinese minister abroad wished additional help in his 
legation he had a right to ask the ministry of foreign affairs to select 
him one of these graduates.^ 

In November, 1907, Viceroy Tuan Fang established a provincial 
college of languages at Nanking. He is reported as having given 
6,000 taels toward its establishment. It admitted 120 students. 
French and German are the languages emphasized, Eussian was 
not taught. Colleges of languages have also been established in 
Tientsin, Hu Peh, and Manchuria. Ministers accredited to foreign 
countries are expected to select their interpreters from the graduates 
of the College of Languages or the provincial colleges of languages. 
The professorships of languages in the various schools in the Em- 
pire are to be filled by graduates of the highest grade of these col- 
leges of languages. 

The Chin Shih College was established in Peking to give the 
chin shih (Ph. D.) and Hanlin (LL. D.) graduates of the old system 
of Government examinations an opportunity to study western learn- 
ing for a period of three years, believing that a general education 
was necessary to prepare them for their future official duties. Men 
over 35 years of age had the right to petition to be excused from 
attending the college, in which case they were given the title of a 
district magistrate and distributed among the Provinces for official 
duty. Those below 35 years of age were compelled to attend the 
college. Each student was granted an annual stipend of 240 taels 
if he were a Hanlin or a chung shu, and 160 taels was granted to 
those of lower degree. 

Course of study for the Chin Shih Kuan. 



Subjects. 



History 

Geography 

Physics 

Pedagogy 

Law 

Political economy , 

Chemistry 

Diplomacy 

Commerce 

Military science... 

Architecture 

Agriculture 



Total. 



Number of hours. 



First year. ^^°^f ^ Third year. 



24 



24 



24 



1 Hsueh Pu Kuan Pao, vol. 84, dept. 1, pp. 3-6. 



84 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

Students who successfully complete the course of study are exam- 
ined by an imperial commissioner and the president of the ministry 
of education, and those who pass the examination are introduced to 
the regent and later receive official appointments. Many of these 
students have been sent abroad to study and upon their return are 
examined. On March 15 and 17, 1909, four of these students were 
examined not only on the special studies but also in Chinese history 
and literature. ' 

A number of law schools have been established in the Empire. 
The two most prominent ones are the law school in Peking, which 
had in the beginning of 1909 about 740 students training for the 
board of law, and the North China Law School, in Tientsin, which 
now occupies fine buildings that were constructed in 1907. This law 
school was established in 1906 for the purpose of giving a three- 
year course in the study of foreign law and treaties, preparing the 
students for diplomatic service. After the graduating of the first 
class changes were made by imperial sanction, and the school became 
a provincial law school and receives not only Government students, 
but hopes also, by enlarging its faculty, to receive many self-support- 
ing students. In 1909 there were 4 Japanese and 16 Chinese profes- 
sors. All the students were required to study the Japanese language. 
It has a very fair library of Chinese and Japanese books. The pros- 
pect of soon having a constitutional government for China will 
stimulate many young men to study law, and doubtless the time is 
not far distant when every Province in China will have its provincial 
law school, modeled after that of North China. 

" Chinese medicine, which began so well, has made no progress 
during the last 2,000 years. It has, on the other hand, greatly de- 
generated both in dignity and influence, until at the present time 
there abounds all over the Empire an enormous number of illiterate 
and unscrupulous quacks, who * * * trade entirely upon the 
superstitions and fears of their numerous clients."^ To show the 
strong hold that the old system of medicine has on the people, we 
quote the following from the North China Herald, May 1, 1909, 
page 246 : " Chenchow can now boast of a new medical school with 
two teachers and five medical students. The school is opened in a 
new temple just completed. The teachers are both Chenchow men 
and know nothing of medicine except what they have learned from 
reading their own Chinese books and practice. The official in speak- 
ing of the medical profession here said there were no good doctors, 
and the new school was provided to enable all those who wanted to 

1 Hsueli Pu Kuan Pao, vol. 82, dept. 1, p. 1. 

2 " The position of medical science in China as compared with that of the West." We 
Lien Te, M. A., M. D. (Cambridge.) The World's Chinese Students' Journal, vol. 2, No. 1, 
p. 7. 



MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS. 85 

practice to get a certificate, and thus give the profession a legal 
standing. The money, something over $1,000, was raised by sub- 
scription." And again from the same paper, May 29, 1909 : "Accord- 
ing to a Chinese local contemporary the members of the above-named 
institution, ' The College of Imperial Physicians,' are too conserva- 
tive in their education and training, and some of them are even 
unacquainted with modern hygiene and its principles. Owing to 
this, a grand councilor is said to have recently advised Prince Ching 
of the necessity of making some improvements toward better training 
of the members of the college in view of the importance which should 
be attached to human life." 

One of the greatest needs in China is more medical schools. It is 
strange that the Government, having displayed so much activity in 
opening schools for science, language, engineering, the army and 
navy, should have been so backward in establishing a national sys- 
tem of medical education. It has the North China Medical College 
and the Army Medical College at Tientsin, where surgeons are pre- 
pared for army and navy service. The North China Medical School 
has a three-year course of study, and in March, 1908, graduated 35 
students in the first grade; these received the degree of lin sheng; 
21 made second gTade and received the tseng sheng degree. 

Doubtless the best medical college in all China is the Union Medical 
College of Peking, formed by the union of the two missionary med- 
ical colleges of the North China Educational Union and the Peking 
University. It has a large faculty, composed of graduates of the 
medical colleges of the leading American and British universities. 
All instruction is given in Chinese and covers a five-year course of 
studj^ The late Empress Dowager contributed 10,000 taels toward 
its establishment and the Chinese Government has promised to make 
annual contributions toward its support. It is the only missionary 
medical college in China which has received the sanction of the 
Throne and whose graduates are entitled to enter the Government 
examinations and receive Government degrees and rank. Its first 
class will graduate in 1912. 

The Nobles' School in Peking was opened June 15, 1906, for the 
sons of nobles and the sons of the first and second class officials. The 
school provided for 160 students, to be divided into four classes, 
according to scholarship. The course of study at first was planned 
for five years, but this was changed to three years. The first class, 
of 96 students, graduated in 1909, the ministry of the army conferring 
first grade upon 70 and the second grade upon 26. It is expected that 
]nany of those young men will go abroad to study in military or naval 
academies and later enter the Chinese Army and Navy. Prof. Sharp, 
in The Educational System of Japan (p. 330), writes: " It was hoped 
that the young peers would take to the army and navy, but com- 



86 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP CHINA. 

paratively few succeeded in entering them, as the examinations are 
stiJff and they enjoy no privilege." Let us hope that the sons of the 
nobles of China may prove themselves more capable than their Japa- 
nese neighbors. 

Military schools have been established in several of the Provinces. 
In 1909 there were 18 military schools (lu chin hsiao hsueh tang) in 
the Empire. In Peking, on the Mei Chang Street, is located the 
school to be the model for all others. It has a three-year course of 
study, and in February, 1909, enrolled 387 students. Its first class of 
180 students was expected to enter the newly established military 
school (Lu Chin Cheng Hsueh Tang) for two years' study. There 
are three other large schools or academies at Nanking, Wu Chang, 
and Hsi An Fu. In 1900 the military school at Paotingfu graduated 
400 students.^ The ministry of war is now contemplating the estab- 
lishment of a regulated system of national and provincial military 
schools. A military commission is now visiting foreign countries 
examining their military systems and schools. A naval commission 
has just returned from a tour of inspection of the naval systems and 
schools of foreign countries, and the ministry of admiralty are now 
considering the reorganization of their naval schools and are plan- 
ning to establish a national system of naval academies and schools. 
At present there are naval schools at Fu Chou, Tientsin, Chefoo, and 
Nanking. We have noted that military drill and tactics are receiv- 
ing much attention in the curricula of the Government schools of 
China. This drill has developed a military spirit in all the schools, 
as well as a spirit of patriotism. It has also created more respect for 
military officers and the army. The Chinese have always been a 
peace-loving people, and we believe they are likely to remain such, 
but they see the necessity of providing for self-preservation, and 
we may expect in time that China will have at her command one of 
the best organized and best disciplined, and the largest army in the 
world, which will place the balance of power in her hands, and may 
we not hope to secure through her arbitration universal peace? 

The Government in 1908 sanctioned the memorial recommending 
the establishment of a customs training college in Peking, to be 
under the control of the imperial customs, for training Chinese young 
men for positions in the imperial maritime customs and postal 
system. The entrance requirements are English and Chinese. Stu- 
dents between 16 and 22 years of age are admitted by competitive 
examinations. The course comprises four years of study, after which 
the successful students are to be drafted into the indoor staff of the 
customs. It is expected that in time these graduates will replace the 
foreign staff. Mr. Brewitt-Taylor, a member of the customs staff, 

1 North China Herald, May 29, 1909, p. 487. 



MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS. 87 

noted for his scholarship and ability, has been appointed the director 
of the college. 

The ministry of finance, having secured the sanction of the Govern- 
ment, are expecting to open a school of finance in Peking in 1910 
which will accommodate 130 students. The course will be given in 
Chinese and English. A preparatory school will be connected 
with it. 

The Chinese Students' Monthly, volume 3, Nos. 7-8, page 279, con- 
tains the following item concerning a railway school in Peking : His 
Excellency Hai-huan, director general of the Tientsin-Pukou Railway, 
has obtained the sanction of the ministry of posts and communication 
to establish a railway school in Peking, having for its object the train- 
ing of men for service on that road. The school will be divided into 
two departments^ namely, traffic and telegraph. Taotai Yuan Chang 
Kun has been appointed director general of the school. The site of 
the school is in the vicinity of Chungmen Gate, and the estimate for 
the maintenance of the school is 50,000 taels per annum. Taotai 
Yuan is a returned student from the United States and a member of 
the Chinese educational mission which was sent over in the middle 
of the seventies." 

A school for the training of diplomats, known as the " Hautsai 
Kuan," is reported as having been established in Peking, from which 
recruits will doubtless be drawn for the foreign service.^ 

On February 20, 1909, the board of the interior (min cheng pu), 
having memorialized the Throne, it was decided to establish a police 
high school in each provincial capital, and police training schools in 
all the fus and hsiens.- The North China police high school was es- 
tablished in Tientsin in 1902. Men who are able to read and write 
are taken as students. The number of students in the two-year 
course is limited to 100, and in the one-year course to 160. It had up 
to 1909 received 766 students, 676 having graduated. The provincial 
police school for Chihli was established at Paotingfu in 1906 by 
Viceroy Yuan Shih Kai. In this school a course of six months and 
another of a year are offered. It is able to accommodate about 500 
students. In 1906 there were over 300 attending. These schools have 
provided well-trained police for the smaller as well as for the larger 
cities of the Province, a very marked contrast to the incompetent 
police seen before 1900. The very best order is now maintained upon 
the streets of Peking and Tientsin. In the Tai Yuenfu police school, 
as early as 1904, 17,000 taels were spent to educate 112 students. Its 
teaching staff was made up of three Japanese and two Chinese teach- 
ers. Similar schools have been established in other Provinces. 

^The World's Chinese Students' Journal, vol. 4, No. 1, p. 18. 
2 Hsueh Pu Kuan Pao, vol. 83, dept. 3, p. 3. 



88 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF GHHSTA. 

The president of the ministry of the interior has decided to estab- 
lish a detective school at Peking for training men for espionage serv- 
ice in the ministry. The pupils are to be chosen from the first-grade 
graduates of the police schools.^ 

In Tientsin I visited in February, 1909, an institution Imown as a 
reformatory school. The following five classes of persons were ad- 
mitted: (1) Men having no means nor money; (2) orphans above 10 
years of age without home or friends; (3) incorrigible children sent 
by their parents to the school for discipline; (4) people who have 
become stranded in Tientsin; and (5) petty thieves, both old and 
young. Those between 10 and 20 years of age were taught arith- 
metic, writing, reading, and athletics. Suitable lectures were pro- 
vided for all the inmates, and they were taught a number of trades, 
such as are being taught in the industrial schools. At that time I 
was told there were about 500 in this school. We understand that 
similar schools are being established in other large cities of the 
Empire. 

During the last decade great changes have been inaugurated in 
prison life. " Model prisons," with schools connected with them, 
are now being erected in most of the Provinces. Instead of keeping 
the prisoners, as was the custom before 1900, chained in filthy, in- 
sanitary buildings, they are now placed in modern buildings similar 
to those of Japan, and are required to work and live a more whole- 
some and natural life. The spirit in the prisons is reformatory and 
the prisoners are placed in the prison schools, where they are taught 
trades. Yuan Shih Kai, when viceroy of Chihli, was the first to 
institute these changes. 

The Government has shown great wisdom in establishing a pre- 
paratory school in Peking for students preparing for the "American 
indemnity scholarships." The course of study will include all those 
subjects required for entrance to the colleges of the best universities 
of the United States. His Excellency Tang Kai San, a former Yale 
student, a man of the highest character and attainments, has been ap- 
pointed the director of the school, and we are informed that a corps of 
18 American teachers, composed of an equal number of men and 
women, will constitute the faculty. From this school will be sent to the 
United States well- prepared, earnest, enthusiastic students, who will 
be sure to rank high and win honors in the American universities. 
Let us hope that the training they will receive in the United States 
will fit them to become great national leaders upon their return to 
China. 

His Excellency Chang Chih Tung, when viceroy of Hu Kuang, es- 
tablished " colleges for the preservation of the old learning " (Tsun Ku 

1 The Chinese Students' Monthly, vol. 4, No. 4, p. 227. 



MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS. 89 

Hsueh Tang) . Their object is to encourage students to specialize in the 
Chinese classical learning, much as was done in former days. It is 
reported that other Provinces have followed his excellency's ex- 
ample and founded similar institutions. Did the ghost of the past 
arise to disturb Chang Chih Tung's dreams of modern education in 
China — the one who was the author of " China's Only Hope," the 
founder of some of her early modern schools, one of the framers of 
her present educational system, and the general controller of the 
ministry of education? 

One of the most important features of the revolution in Chinese 
education is the provision now made by the Government for female 
education. Under the old regime no provision was made for the 
education of women. In rare cases an indulgent father taught a 
brilliant daughter; but, as a whole, the women of China were alto- 
gether uneducated. To-day the most enlightened Chinese realize 
that the future greatness of their Empire depends largely upon the 
education of their girls as well as of their boys. They have dis- 
covered that no country is great where the women are ignorant, and 
the educational commissioners have learned that the greatest civili- 
zation and material progress are in those countries where women 
are the most highly educated. They have also discovered that the 
educated woman makes the best wife and mother. There have been 
some strong women in China, like the sisters of Prince Su, who, hav- 
ing been endowed with good intellects and with not a little inde- 
pendence, have started private girls' schools of their own and have 
used every means to encourage the establishment of other schools. 
These and other strong women have worked until they have secured 
Government recognition for girls' schools. Tuan Fang, before and 
after his going abroad, urged the establishment of female education 
in China. When the commissioners were in the United States they 
were greatly impressed by the advantages in education offered Ameri- 
can women, and made most favorable reports to the Throne. The 
late Empress Dowager was greatly interested in female education, 
and lost no opportunity of learning all she could of western methods 
from American women concerning female education in the United 
States. As a result to-day there are Government, public, and pri- 
vate girls' schools established in almost every Province. Govern- 
ment provision has been made for primary and middle schools, 
normal schools, and colleges for women. 

By the beginning of 1908 there were outside of Peking 121 girls' 
schools in Chihli Province. Of this number, 43 were Government 
schools, 39 public schools, and the remaining 39 were private schools. 
The schools enrolled 2,523 pupils, and were taught by 168 teachers, 
having graduated 95 students. The total annual income from all 
sources was 71,612 taels, the expenditure 68,668 taels, or a little over 



90 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

27 taels per student. At this time the North China Provincial College 
for Women (Pei Yang Kao Teng Nu Hsueh Tang), located in Tien- 
tsin, had 7 teachers and 74 students. The subjects taught were 
Chinese classics, history, wenli composition, geography, domestic 
science, mathematics, English, painting, sewing, Chinese penmanship, 
music, and calisthenics. The annual income for the college was 9,831 
taels and the annual expenditure 9,586 taels. The North China 
Broad Knowledge Woman's School (Pei Yang Hung Wen Nu Hsueh 
Tang) had 10 teachers and 82 pupils. In addition to the subjects 
taught in the above-mentioned college were physics and the use of 
the sewing machine. Its income was 2,158 taels and its expenses 
were 8,640 taels for the year. The North China Woman's Normal 
School, with a four-year course of study, is also located in Tientsin, 
and had, in 1908, 9 teachers and 84 students, having graduated 78. 
The Japanese language was taught in place of English. The annual 
expense for the year had been 24,203 taels, and its income but 23,387 
taels. In 1909, when I visited this normal college, there were 13 
teachers, 6 men and 5 women and 2 student teachers. The enroll- 
ment was 98. I was told that more than half of these students were 
good Chinese scholars. I visited classes in botany, drawing, music, 
and algebra, all of which were well conducted. The students were 
dignified, making a good impression and giving every promise of 
developing into good teachers. At that time I also visited the 
Woman's Nurses' Training School in Tientsin. Dr. Yamei Kin, an 
exceedingly well-informed Chinese lady, and a graduate of the Wo- 
man's Medical College of New York, is the director of the school. 
Dr. Kin had personally superintended the remodeling of the build- 
ings used for the school, and had shown excellent judgment in all the 
arrangements. A class of 23 pupils was pursuing a two-year course 
of study. Later on Dr. Kin hopes to open a woman's medical col- 
lege in connection with the nurses' school. Most of the remaining 
schools in Chihli Province were primary, enrolling from 7 to 156 
students. The subjects taught were similar to those given above, 
only of a more elementary character. 

Provision was made in July, 1908, for a woman's normal college to 
be opened in Peking in two temples outside of the Hsi An gate. 
Appropriations for 50,000 taels for repairs and 30,000 taels for an- 
nual expenses were provided by the Government. Women between 
the ages of 20 and 30 are to be admitted after passing the required 
entrance examinations. All the teachers are to be women, with the 
exception of the director and the teachers of Chinese subjects, who 
must be over 50 years of age. The future success of girls' schools is 
assured, for the Regent is known to take much interest in the estab- 
lishing of schools for girls, and has several times urged upon the 
ministry of education the importance of seeing that these schools 



MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS. 91 

were rapidly established in the Provinces. He desires that all the 
regulations concerning girls' schools should be carried out, except the 
one in regard to the employing of men above 50 years of age as teach- 
ers in girls' schools. Since there is an insufficient number of qualified 
men of that age to man the schools, the Eegent feels that there should 
be no delay in the establishment of these schools, and that the need 
of good teachers justifies the employing of younger men. In 1908 
there were reported to be 771 girls attending the primary schools in 
Peking, Doubtless by to-day the attendance has been more than 
doubled. 

The establishment of girls' schools is sure to revolutionize the home 
and social life of the people. The Government has refused to admit 
girls with bound feet into the schools, and this will be the most effect- 
ive weapon that can be used to blot out that pernicious custom. It 
is sure to open the way for women to be self-supporting. Tuan Fang, 
in advocating female education, pointed out that in time the women 
would be able to teach the primary schools. The graduates of the 
mission girls' high schools have proved themselves excellent instruc- 
tors, and the educated women will be preferred to men as teachers of 
the young children. The Chinese western-educated young men have 
a desire to see their sisters educated, and all Chinese educated women 
are the recipients of their chivalrous attention, as was demonstrated 
last summer when the Chinese young men studying in the United 
States invited all the Chinese women students to be their guests at 
their summer conference held at Hamilton, N. Y. The young ladies 
accepted their invitation and, properly chaperoned, attended. The 
courtesy of the young men extended even to the payment of their 
traveling expenses. The western-educated young man wants an 
educated wife, a companion, not a slave, and those who are married 
to uneducated, superstitious women feel that their lot is " bitter," but 
must be endured. A graduate of a Christian college, in speaking of 
his uneducated heathen wife, said : " She is like a carbuncle on my 
neck." She was largely what the old educational and social system 
had made her. The fault was not hers, but that of the system. In 
time the education of women is sure to destroy the present system of 
early marriage. It will liberate women and do away with concubin- 
age. It will give the educated woman a different position in the 
home of her mother-in-law, and will be the greatest means that can 
be employed to do away with superstitions. The future educated 
mother in China will be to her husband, home, and children all that 
we find in her educated sisters of other countries. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
CHINESE STUDENTS STUDYING ABROAD. 

Never in the history of the world has any other country sent so 
many students to study abroad as has China since entering upon 
her educational reforms. In the very beginning of the movement 
the .Government was forced to recognize the fact that China was 
wholly unprepared to meet the demand, for she lacked men prepared 
to take up the work of the construction and execution of a policy 
to be built on the ruins of the old educational system. She recog- 
nized that her vast army of scholars, who had been trained in the 
old and were ignorant of the new learning, would prove a menace 
to reform unless they could be trained in western learning and in- 
duced to serve in the organization of a work that they themselves 
would be unable to carry out to completion. It was a master stroke 
on the part of China that she held out such great inducements to her 
literati to foreign study and travel. That Japan was chosen for a 
field of study, and especially for short courses in training, was due 
to her proximity as well as to her similarity in customs and the 
written language — an economy in both time and expense. The ex- 
periment has not been entirely satisfactory, although her main object 
has been accomplished, and to-day the new educational system, 
though imperfect as yet in detail, is firmly established. 

In September, 1901, the Government, as we have seen, commanded 
the viceroys and governors to send students abroad for study, and 
required that their expenses should be met by their native Provinces. 
Each Government student now receives 120 taels for traveling ex- 
penses, and 400 taels aid per year while in Japan studying. The 
Imperial Government, following the advice of Yuan Shih Kai, sent 
many Hanlin and chin shihs abroad for study or travel, and in this 
way these men also were brought in line with the new system. 
Special competitive examinations were held for those wha held rank 
above the first but had not obtained the second degree, and the best 
of these men were made expectant officials. Those having failed 
realized that they had been given a chance and had lost, and now 
they were content to fall in line and enter such positions as were 
open to them. Thus was a great revolution in education brought 
about with little or no opposition. " Early in 1902 there were 271 
Chinese students, from 15 Provinces, studying in the Sunrise King- 
92 



CHINESE STUDENTS STUDYING ABKOAD. 93 

dom."* In 1903 there were 591, and during the year 1904 they 
increased at the rate of 100 per month, until in January, 1905, there 
were 2,406, and by November of that year the number had increased 
to 8,620.^ In the autumn of 1906 the Japan Mail gave the number 
as not less than 13,000, and in the spring of 1907 the Chinese am- 
bassador estimated that there were 15,000 students in Tokyo,^ while 
later according to His Excellency Wu Ting Fang, there were at one 
time studying in Tokyo as many as 17,000 Chinese students.* Although 
the experiment was not entirely satisfactory, the fault was not all 
on the part of Japan. A great majority of the students sent by the 
Provinces and others, supported by city or village guilds, or by 
friends or parents, were in no sense prepared for study in the 
Japanese schools. Most of them had no knowledge of the Japanese 
language, and had first to devote months to the study of it before 
being able to enter the public schools. Many were there for short- 
term courses of a year or less, while others came because it was 
popular to do so. Some came for political reasons, while others, too 
old to learn a language, on finding the work difficult, became dis- 
couraged and returned home. Again the Japanese Government 
schools were M-holly unjDrepared to accommodate such an invasion of 
students. Private schools were opened especially for Chinese stu- 
dents, and often by incompetent and unscrupulous Japanese, who, 
caring only for the Chinese silver, offered " short-cut courses," and 
sold diplomas to dishonest students. These, on their return to China, 
were able for a short time to impose upon the ignorance of their 
countrymen, and so brought Japanese education into general dis- 
repute. Too much veneer and too much political agitation soon 
brought the movement into disfavor. The Peking Government ap- 
plied a restraining hand by requiring all Government students who 
wished to go abroad for study to pass an examination upon all the 
subjects required in the middle schools^ before leaving China, and 
in August, 1908, required that students should have a sufficient knowl- 
edge of the language of the country where they intended to study to 
be able to attend and understand the lectures ; and, as students still 
disregarded this action, an edict of December, 1908, gave warning 
that any returned students whose examination papers had not been 
filed with the ministry of education before going abroad for study 
would not be admitted to the imperial examinations for returned 
students.*^ In September, 1908, the Government announced that all 
returned students from Japan, before being admitted to the im- 

1 The Educational Conquest in the Far East, p. 184. 

2 North China Herald, Mar. 16, 1906, p. 569. 

3 The Chinese Students' Migration to Tokyo, p. 4. 

^The World's Chinese Students' Journal, vol. 3, No. 1, p. 11. 
5 Hsueh Pu Kuan Pao, vol. 4, dept. 2, p. 59. 
^IMd.j vol. 78, dept. 3, p. 2. 



94 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

perial examinations, must first pass an examination before the min- 
istry of education on general subjects, including Japanese classics 
and language. The reason given was that many students had secured 
diplomas from Japanese scientific schools very easily.^ 

Many returned students from Japan have miserably failed in the 
imperial examinations at Peking. In the report of the examination 
held October, 1908, appears this statement: "Twenty were rejected 
as failures; youths who had studied in Japan." Not only is rigid 
oversight of the students inaugurated at Peking, but the strictest of 
measures are being enforced by Chinese officials in Tokyo. The 
result is that unprepared pupils are not going to Japan as formerly, 
and all the short-term schools have been discontinued. The Govern- 
ment schools and the large private schools, like Waseda University, 
now refuse to admit students unless they enroll for a specified number 
of years. All this has resulted in reducing the number of Chinese 
students. In 1909 there were in Tokyo 1,992 Chinese Government 
students in the collegiate schools and 395 in the military schools, 
making a total of 2,387 Government students in that city. There were 
also at least 2,500 private students. It is estimated that not less than 
5,000 Chinese students, 150 of whom are women, are now studying 
in Japan. Though their numbers have been greatly decreased, the 
quality and moral standing of the students have materially increased. 
Both the Government and private students now in Japan are there 
for earnest effort, and with the intention of completing prescribed 
courses of studj^; they are doing their work well and many in the 
higher courses are winning honors among the Japanese students. 
They represent the better element of China, having been selected by 
competitive examinations or because of their social standing. The 
revolutionary class, at one time so strong, has largely disappeared. 
Rev. P. J. Laird, in the Chinese Students in Japan, says : "Although 
drinking and drunkenness are far more prevalent among the Japa- 
nese than one had imagined before coming to live in Tokyo, one has 
not yet seen a Chinese intoxicated." ^ There is no likelihood that the 
Chinese Government will decrease its number of scholarship students 
for some years to come. The Imperial Government, beginning with 
1909, proposes to send 200 new students to Japan each year for the 
next five years.^ By imperial decree of January 3, 1909, Government 
aid was to be granted in future, especially to students who were 
actually taking technical or medical courses in the higher institutions 
of Japan, as the Government is in need of their services.* The 
students in Japan are able to advance in Chinese learning, which 

1 Hsueli Pu Kuan Pao, vol. 65, dept. 1, p. 3. 

2 The Chinese Recorder, January, 1907, p. 61. 
s North China Herald, July 31, 1909, p. 281. 

* Hsueh Pu Kuan Pao, vol. 77, dept. 2, p. 4. 



CHINESE STUDENTS STUDYING ABEOAD. 95 

gives them some advantages in the imperial competitive examinations 
at Peking over students having studied in other countries. In the 
examination of returned military students in 1908, of the 68 compet- 
ing students 12 had studied in Germany and 56 in Japan. The 
examination resulted in 27 being graded " first class," 26 from 
Japan and 1 from Germany ; the remaining 41 candidates were graded 
" second class." The failure of the students from Germany to make 
" first class " was due to their poor preparation in Chinese. There is 
a general feeling among the Chinese students that to study in Japan 
is to receive a knowledge of the western sciences and literature second- 
hand, and that it is far better to obtain it first-hand in America or 
Europe. Many of the students now studying in Japan hope later 
to take graduate work in some western country. The tendency of the 
Chinese Government has been each year to send more and more 
students to the Occident. 

The rigid enforcement of the Chinese exclusion laws prevented, in 
the beginning, many Chinese students coming to America, and sent 
them to Japan or Europe. This was due not so much to the existence 
of the law, as that in some cases it was unjustly interpreted by the 
United States Government officials at San Francisco; but more often 
it was due to carelessness or ignorance in making out credentials. 
Chinese officials often signed passports who, according to the treaty, 
were authorized to do so — ^His Excellency Li Hung Chang being no 
exception — and students were at times held up or sent back because 
passports were not legally made out. We have never heard that a 
Chinese student who presented a properly made-out and witnessed 
passport had been denied admission to the United States. But there 
are connected with it most humiliating conditions that can not but 
offend a Chinese student, and this lack of courtesy and justice cre- 
ates resentment against the United States. 

The fixed allowance given by the Chinese Government to students 
studying in universities and schools in western countries is as fol- 
lows: England, £192 per year; France, 4,800 francs; Germany, 
3,840 marks; Kussia, 1,620 rubles; Belgium, 4,800 francs; United 
States, $960. Those pursuing studies in preparatory schools receive 
one-fifth less than that given above.^ Traveling expenses are always 
allowed, and sometimes additional money for an outfit, as in the case 
of the Chinese indemnity students. 

In 1900 there were but a few Chinese students in England. Later, 
and especially after 1905, larger numbers began to arrive, many at 
their own expense, while others held provincial or Government schol- 
arships. Among the latter were students sent from Nan Yang Col- 
lege, the Imperial University, College of Languages, Hupei Iron 

1 Hsueh Pu Kuan Pao, vol. 9, dept. 5, p. 10. 



96 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

Works, Kiang Su, Sze Chuan, and Kuang Tung educational bureaus, 
and Shanghai Polytechnic College, until in 1907 there were about 60 
students. These students were attending the Universities of Ox- 
ford, Cambridge, London, Manchester, Liverpool, and Birmingham, 
also some of the Scotch universities, while others were studying the 
iron and steel industries at Sheffield or were in attendance at the 
principal technical and commercial schools, Navigation Training 
College, and the Royal School of Mines in the United Kingdom. 

April 11, 1910, the following information was sent from the office 
of the educational commissioner of Europe: There are to-day some 
140 Chinese Government scholarship students, and about an equal 
number of students supported by private funds in the LTnited King- 
dom. In Belgium there are about 70 Government students ; in France, 
80 ; in Germany, 60 ; in Austria, 10 ; and in Russia, about 15. No sta- 
tistics could be sent regarding the private students in these countries, 
as they are not under the direction of the commissioner. " In all these 
countries the subjects that are generally studied are: (1) Engineer- 
ing, Avhich includes mining, civil, electrical, and mechanical; (2) law 
(LL. B. as well as the barrister-at-law) ; (3) science, pure and ap- 
plied; (4) arts; (5) economics, banking and commerce; (6) mis- 
cellaneous, such as agriculture, textile manufacturing, architecture 
and shipbuilding, military and naval subjects, gunnery, and gun- 
making." There are also about 30 naval students in England, 30 
military students in Germany, 10 in Austria, 8 in France, and 3 in 
Belgium. There are many private students on the Continent, among 
them a son of Prince Su, who is in Belgium. 

The universities of no western country are attracting so many 
Chinese students as are those of the United States. The reasons are, 
first, that of all the foreign languages the English is the most famil- 
iar to the Chinese student; second, because of the democratic spirit 
of the American universities; and, third, because of the cordial re- 
ception now tendered Chinese students by the American Government 
and people. In 1905 there were 61 students in the American univer- 
sities and 19 graduate students.^ At that time there were enrolled 
in the University of California 17; in Columbia University, 6; in 
Cornell University, 5; in Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 6; 
and in Yale University, 4. The next year 217 students were reported 
as studying in the United States ; of this number 122 were attending 
universities, colleges, or technical schools ; ^ 62 were in high schools 
and 33 were unclassified. There were 13 female students. One 
hundred and eighteen of the students in the universities, colleges, and 
technical schools were pursuing the following courses of study: 
Philosophy, 1 ; education, 6 ; political science, 9 ; law, 6 ; economics, 

1 Admission of Chinese Students to American Colleges, p. 180. 
2Mei Chou Liu Hsueb Pao Kao, p. 36. 



CHINESE STUDENTS STUDYING ABEOAD. 9*7 

including public finance, commerce and commercial law, 14; arts 
and sciences, 3 ; physics and mathematics, 2 ; chemistry, 4 ; medicine, 
3; railway and sanitary engineering, 21; mechanical engineering, 
5 ; electrical engineering, 8 ; mining engineering, 13 ; agriculture, 10 ; 
forestry, 1; textile manufacture, 10; and military science (West 
Point), 2.^ The universities having the largest attendance were: 
Cornell, 17; Harvard, 16; California, 14; Yale, 10; Columbia, 6; 
Brown, Chicago, and Pennsylvania, 5 each.^ 

In the summer of 1907 Viceroy Tuan Fang, desiring to send some 
students to the United States, held at Nanking the first Government 
competitive examination for the selection of students to go abroad. 
The examination was unique, as it was the first to be opened to women. 
Out of 600 students who made application only 72 young men and 10 
young women were deemed qualified to enter the examination. After 
a three-days' test, 10 male and 3 female students were chosen, all of 
whom were well qualified to do university work. One was admitted 
to the junior class in Cornell University. The following year a simi- 
lar examination was held at Che Kiang. Of the 200 candidates, 
about 25 were disqualified physically. The examination was based 
upon the system of entrance examinations of Yale and Harvard. 
The examiners were Mr. Chao Sze Bok, M. A., LL. M. (Yale) ; Mr. 
Leo, a returned student from Belgium, who conducted the examina- 
tion in French; Mr. T. H. Lee, B. A. (Yale) ; and Mr. Pu, B. Sc. 
(California). Of the 20 students chosen, 3 were from St. John's 
University, 10 from the Imperial Polytechnic, 3 from Ching Tan Col- 
lege (Shanghai), 1 from Tientsin University, and 3 from other insti- 
tutions Out of gratitude for the return to China on the part of the 
United States of over $10,000,000 gold of the Boxer indemnity, China 
pledged herself to send to the United States 100 students each year 
for 4 j'^ears, and 50 students annually thereafter for 28 years, in all 
1,800 students. One-half of these annual detachments are to be of 
advanced grade, who, upon their arrival in the United States, will be 
able to enter some college or technical school; the other half are to 
be under 15 years of age and to possess a good knowledge of Chinese 
and some knowledge of English and western studies. The Indemnity 
Scholarship Preparatory School is to admit 300 students, composed of 
100 of the higher grade, all of whom are to be under 20 j^ears of age 
and must possess a good knowledge of the Chinese classics and litera- 
ture, and 200 of the lower grade. The advanced students are to be 
chosen by competitive examination without regard to Province, race, 
or religion; Chinese, Manchus, Chinese Bannermen, Mongids, and 
Thibetans are all equally eligible, the conditions being to pass the 

1 Mei Chou Liu Hsueh Tao Kao, p. 66. 
-ma. pp. 1-.3G. 

9561°— 11 7 



98 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

examinations. The lower-grade students are to be chosen from the 
Provinces, each Province to be represented in the preparatory school 
by the number allowed according to the proportion of Boxer indem- 
nity it has to pay, but this does not insure each Province of its quota 
being sent to the United States, as the students are to be chosen from 
the school by competitive examination, which means that students 
from some Provinces may stand higher in the examination than those 
from other Provinces. In September, 1909, the Government selected, 
by competitive examinations held at Peking, the first class of indem- 
nity students to be sent to the United States. Out of about 600 appli- 
cants, 47 students were chosen, but they arrived in the United States 
too late to enter college classes. The students, with the exception of 
2, were placed in eastern academies for the remainder of the year, 
when they will all enter college classes. 

In January, 1910, there were not less than 600 Chinese students 
studying in the United States. According to statistics given by the 
Chinese Students' Monthly, of March, 1910, there are 462 students 
located east of the Rockies, distributed in institutions as follows: 
Universities, 244 ; colleges, 28 ; professional institutions, 29 ; semi- 
naries, 21; academies, 63; schools, 50; grammar schools, 2; and 
unclassified, 28.^ The universities enrolling the largest number of 
students are: Cornell, 35; Harvard, 26; Columbia, 23; Wisconsin, 
22 ; Yale, 22 ; Illinois, 20 ; and Pennsylvania, 19.^ According to the 
distribution by States, there are in Massachusetts 124 Chinese stu- 
dents; New York, 89; Illinois, 65; Pennsylvania, 41; Connecticut, 30; 
Ohio, 24; Wisconsin, 23; Indiana, 19; and Michigan, 15.^ The 4 
Provinces sending the largest number of students to the United 
States are Kuangtung, Kiangsu, Chekiang, and Chihli. 

The first imperial metropolitan examination for returned students 
was held in Peking in 1905, under the direction of the board of rites. 
The examination not being well advertised, only 14 candidates ap- 
peared, all from Japan. Degrees were conferred upon all, 2 receiv- 
ing the Hanlin, 6 the chin shih, and 6 the chu jen. Since then the 
examinations have been conducted each year by the ministry of edu- 
cation. The first was held in October, 1906. Graduates of schools 
not below the grade of the Japanese high school were eligible, but 
candidates were required to present their diplomas, notebooks, and 
such published works as they might have. There were 42 candidates, 
ranging from 44 to 23 years of age; 23 were from Japan, 16 from 
the United States, 2 from England, and 1 from Germany. The 
board of examination was composed of Chinese who had studied 
abroad, and were representatives of the schools of England, France, 
Russia, Germany, Japan, and the United States. 

iP. 269. ^P- 268. 



CHINESE STUDENTS STUDYING ABEOAD. 99 

The following is a quotation from an article in the Chinese Re- 
corder by Prof. W. W. Yen, who ranked second in the examination : 
" The examination was divided into two parts, occupying two whole 
days, the 27th and the 29th of the eighth moon. On the first day the 
candidates were examined in the subjects they specialized in while 
at college. Each candidate was handed an envelope containing the 
questions, of which there were three in each subject; he was re- 
quired, however, to reply to two only. Permission was granted to 
the men to write in any language they preferred, and nearly all the 
returned students from Europe and America employed English as 
their vehicle of expression. To enable the reader to form some 
idea of the themes put forward by the examiners, the three proffered 
to the candidate in philosophy are here presented: (1) Define phi- 
losophy and distinguish it from science and ethics. Explain the fol- 
lowing systems of philosophical thought : Dualism, theism, idealism, 
materialism, pantheism, agnosticism. How would you classify, ac- 
cording to the western method, the following Chinese philosophers: 
Chuang Tzu, Chang Tsai, Chu Tzu, Lu Tzu, and Wang Yang-ming ? 

(2) Explain why philosophy developed earliest in Greece. What 
are the leading thoughts in the teaching of Heraclitus? Why will 
his system, at one time almost obsolete, again become popular? (3) 
Expound fully Mill's four methods of induction and mention some 
of the scientific discoveries and inventions which may be directly 
traced to them. At the examination on the second day, which was 
aimed at testing the general knowledge of the men, the same two 
subjects for an essay were given out for all the candidates, one for 
those desiring to compose a Chinese essay and the other for the re- 
turned students from western countries. The former was typically 
Chinese, and may be roughly transliterated as ' To respect those in 
authority, to love one's kin, to venerate one's elders, and to segregate 
the sexes ; these are principles that will abide for all generations ' ; 
the latter was a theme for argumentation, and was worded, ' Will 
it be expedient for China to adopt a system of compulsory educa- 
tion? ' All the candidates, since they came from so many countries 
and represented so many institutions, were placed on the same level 
and had to be graded (1) according to their foreign degrees, (2) 
according to their achievements since their day of graduation, and 

(3) according to the quality of the papers submitted to the ex- 
aminers. All those attaining over 80 out of a possible 100 marks 
were to receive the degree of chin shih; over 70, a first-class chu 
jen, over 60 a second-class chu jen, while those who received over 
50 got only a certificate stating that the holder had attended the 
board examination. Ten out of the 42 men failed even to make 50 
points, and were requested to try again next year." ^ 

^The Recent Imperial Metropolitan Examinations, January, 1907, pp. 34—39. 



100 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHUSTA. 

The examination resulted in conferring the chin shih degree on 
9 candidates, all of whom, with the exception of 1, a graduate of 
Trinity College, Cambridge University, were graduates of Ameri- 
can institutions. In the second class 5 were granted the chu jen 
degree; the first 3 were from America, the last 2 from Japan. In 
the third class 18 received the second-class chu jen degree; the gradu- 
ate of Berlin University ranked eighth in this class, and the 1 from 
London University occupied fifth place. 

Those who received degrees at these Metropolitan examinations 
must have added to the degree the special subject in which they are 
examined, as fa ke chin shih (doctor of law), nung ke chin shih 
(doctor of agriculture) , or kung ke chu jen (master of civil engineer- 
ing). In this first examination a graduate of an American dental 
college was given the chin shih degree. One candidate could scarcely 
write his name in Chinese, but by using a foreign language in the 
examination, secured his degree. The next year, 1907, the examina- 
tions were more rigid. Essays written in Chinese were required, 
and the diplomas, instead of being on the same basis, were graded as 
follows : Doctor of philosophy degree credited with 100 points ; mas- 
ter of arts, Avith 90 points; bachelor of arts, with 80 points; profes- 
sional and technical degrees were given fourth place and but 70 
points ; while a high-school diploma from Japan was granted 60 
points. This schedule has not in all cases worked satisfactorily, yet 
it is influencing many students to take a Ph. D. degree in connection 
with their professional or technical degree, who would not otherwise 
do so. At this second examination 7 received the chin shih degree, 
17 the chu jen degree, and 14 the second-class chu jen degree. At the 
examination held in 1908 there were 15 graded first class, 45 second 
class, and 47 third class, making a total of 107 to receive degrees. 
At the last regular examination, 1909, 30 passed first class, 57 second 
class, and 15 third class, 102 securing degrees.^ At a special ex- 
amination for a list of officials who had studied abroad the chin shih 
degree was conferred upon 12 and the chu jen degree upon 7.^ Some 
of these successful chin shihs were members of the first board of 
examiners under the ministry of education. All government schol- 
arship students are expected to take these examinations upon their 
return to China and to serve the Government a limited number of 
years. These examinations are being carefully conducted and are 
becoming more rigid each year. According to the memorial pub- 
lished in the Hsueh Pu Kuan Pao,^ students of medicine, engineering, 
physics, and agriculture who are graduates of colleges and students 
who are graduates of high schools (Japanese) may be excused from 

1 North China Herald, June 5, 1909, p. 535. 

2 North China Herald, Jan. 21, 1910, p. 144. 
sVol. 46, pp. 62-64. 



CHINESE STUDENTS STUDYING ABROAD. 101 

writing the Chinese essay at the examinations; but it further pro- 
vides that students who are excellent in Chinese as well as in science 
shall be classed as first grade ; those who are good in science and fair 
in Chinese shall be classed second grade; and those who are very 
good in science and poor in Chinese shall be classed in the third 
grade. It also emphasizes the fact that students shall be strictly 
graded according to their standing; that it is' not necessary "to 
squeeze " students into the first grade ; that the first or second grades 
may be left vacant if there are no students passing high enough for 
those grades; and should all deserve first grade, then they must be 
ranked in that grade. This, of course, is a direct innovation on the 
old sj^stem of examinations which allowed a certain number of de- 
grees at each examination. After this examination, held by the min- 
istry of education and the examiners appointed by the throne, these 
successful candidates are later received in imperial audience and 
undergo another examination, after which official rewards are con- 
ferred upon the students according to the result of the two examina- 
tions. The chin shihs who stand first in the palace examination are 
given the title of Hanlin, pien hsiu, or chien tao ; the second are re- 
warded with shu chi shih of the Hanlin Yuan, and three years later, 
upon the recommendation of the president of the Hanlin Yuan, may 
be rewarded with pien hsiu or chien tao; those who stand in the 
third class of the chin shih and the first class of the chu jen are re- 
warded with chu shih and given offices in the different ministries 
according to their special line of study. Those chu jen who stood in 
the first class in the examination held by the ministry of education, 
but fell in the third class at the palace examination, are rewarded 
with chih hsien and given districts to govern at once. Those in the 
second class of chu jen and rank second class at the palace examina- 
tion are rewarded with small posts of the seventh grade in Peking 
and are given positions in the different ministries or boards; those 
who stand in the third class at the palace examination are given the 
title of chih hsien, or district magistrate. 

A half century has past since China began her struggle with 
modern education. At first, forced upon her as it was, she regarded 
it with contempt, her greatest literati doing everything possible to 
prevent its getting a stronghold in the Empire. They not only 
despised the western barbarian, but placed little confidence in the 
Chinese who condescended to use him as their teacher, and as far as 
possible kept them out of official employment. But there were men 
of vision, like Tseng Kuo Fan, who saw that there must be read- 
justments in Chinese education in order to have men prepared for 
China's future needs. Up to 1900 the presidents of the Hanlin Yuan 
were bitter opponents of western education ; since that time they have 
been strong advocates in its favor. "We have seen how little the Tung 



102 THE EDUCATIOISrAL SYSTEM OF CHINA. 

Wen College and its annexes were able to accomplish because of the 
bitter antagonism outside; how Li Hung Chang, as successor of 
Tseng Kuo Fan, failed in courage to brook the opposition to the first 
student mission to the United States, and allowed those promising 
students to be returned to China before completing their courses of 
study, and to suffer so many indignities upon their arrival home. 
The sight of American war vessels in Japanese ports caused Japan 
to appreciate the necessity of immediate reform, and she set out at 
once to make herself great by learning all she could of the arts and 
sciences of the west; but it took the artillery of the world to awaken 
China to the keen appreciation of her danger and the necessity of 
educational reforms if she were still to maintain her sovereignty. It 
was not until after the allied armies had relieved the besieged lega- 
tions in Peking that the Em^Dress Dowager, in her flight for safety, 
realized that the " Boy Emperor " had been in the right in attempting 
to make his country great by the introduction of western learning. 
Convinced, then, of the need of instituting reforms, that woman of 
indomitable will staj^ed not her hand until she had given the death 
blow to the wen chang and had annihilated the old competitive ex- 
aminations and established a system of Government schools that 
should be free to poor and rich, male and female, alike. This educa- 
tional reform was the conception of her nephew Emperor, but she it 
was who possessed the power to carry to completion the greatest revo- 
lution in education that the world has ever witnessed. She lived to 
see 'it firmly established and to know that the greatest of her people 
approved the establishment of an educational system that would 
make possible the carrying out of her promise that the nation should 
have a constitution, provincial assemblies, and a national parliament. 
There are many defects in the educational system. The attempt 
to make a combined course of study that would contain all the 
classical learning of the old literati, and all the arts and sciences of 
the west, has proved a failure, but it can and will be remedied and 
suitable courses will be worked out to meet the special needs of the 
Chinese people. The requiring of too many hours of recitation 
work, and the leaving of too little or no time for study, have failed 
to produce the desired results. Time will overcome the lack of 
competent administrators and trained teachers. The lack of funds 
to meet the future demand of the schools will be the problem that 
the provincial assemblies and national parliament must solve. There 
has developed in the new system a lack of that reverence for the 
teacher that characterized the old system. The goggle-eyed, stoop- 
shouldered, subservient student of the past is no longer to be seen. 
In his place has come the bright-eyed, military-trained lad, who loves 
athletic sports, is intensely patriotic, and is impatient for the day 
when he shall be prepared to aid in the regeneration of his nation. 



CHINESE STUDENTS STUDYING ABROAD. 103 

Such lads are no longer content to be taught by antiquated teachers. 
The new and the old are out of harmony. 

We must not forget that the system has been in operation only 
8 years, and under the control of the ministry of education less 
than 5. What China has accomplished in modern education during 
this time is marvelous. Note the number and variety of the 
schools established, the aid her people have given by private gifts, 
their enthusiasm for the system, and the thousands of students that 
have migrated to foreign lands in search of western learning. Never 
has a country accomplished more in so short a time after the estab- 
lishment of a new system of education. Great opportunities await 
these returned students. Their country needs their services, not only 
in the construction of the many railways, the opening of mines, the 
establishment of industries, the conducting of great commercial 
enterprises, the providing of an adequate national defense on land 
and sea, the drafting of laws and the preparation of a national 
constitution, but to them, more than to any others, belongs the duty 
of solving the problems that yet confront the educational system of 
China. The men of the old regime, like Chang Chih Tung, Sun 
Chia Nai, Yuan Shih Kai, and Tuan Fang, came nobly to the front 
and, in the face of many difficulties, aided in the establishment of the 
present educational system. It now becomes the duty of the chosen 
men who have been given every opportunity that money and western 
culture can oiler to revise the courses of study and develop this 
national system of education, and we have faith to believe that they 
will accomplish the task and that the Chinese people shall yet con- 
tribute largely to modern thought and culture. 



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Chang Chih-tung. China's only hope . . . tr. from the Chinese ed. by S. I. 
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Fryer, John. Admission of Chinese students to American colleges. Washing- 
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Headland, Isaac T. Court life in China ; the capital, its officials and people. 
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King, Edna Haskins. National educational institutions of China, 1896. 

Lacey-Sites, C. M. The educational edicts of 1901 in China. Educational 
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Leroy-Beaulieu, Pierre. The awakening of the East; Siberia — Japan — China 
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Lewis, Robert E. The educational conquest of the Far East. New York, Chi- 
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Martin, William A. P. The awakening of China. New York, Doubleday, Page 

and CO., 1907. xvi, 328 p. illus. 8°. 
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F. H. Reveir company, 1896. 464 p. 8°. 
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2 V. illus. 8°. 
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BIBLIOGEAPHY. 105 

United States. Bureau of education. Progress of western education in China 
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Williams, Samuel W. The Middle Kingdom ; a survey of the geography, govern- 
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Ching Shih Tu Hsiieh Chii I Land Piao, Kuang Hsii, 32-33d years. (Report 
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The Christian movement in Japan. Published annually for the Standing com- 
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Educational association of China, Shanghai. Records of the triennial meet- 
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Emperor Kuang Hsii's reform edicts, 1898. 

Hsiieh Pu Kuan Pao. Vols. 1-93. (Official news of the Ministry of education.) 

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Che Chiang daily news. 

China's young men. Shanghai. 

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Chinese students in Japan. Hardy Jowett, editor. 

The Chinese student's monthly. Boston, Mass. v. 1-5, 1906-1910. 

Chinese students' union quarterly. London, England. 

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Der Ostasiatische Lloyd-Organ fiir die deutschen interessen im fernen f)stev!. 
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World's Chinese students' journal. Shanghai, vols. 1-A. 

o 



R n '19 






BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

(Continued from page 2 of cover.) 
1910. 

No, 1. Th-e movement for reform in the teaching of religion in the public echools of 
Saxony. By Arley Barthio-w Show, Professor of Medieval History, Leland Stan- 
ford Junior University. pp.45. 

No. 2. State school systems: III. Legislation and judicial decisions relating to public 
education, October I, 1908, to October 1, 1909. By Edward C. Elliott, Professor 
of Education in the University of Wisconsin, pp. 305. 

No. 3. List of publications of the United States Bureau of Education, 1867-1910. 
pp. 55. 

No. 4. The biological stations of Europe. By Charles Atwood Kofoid. pp. 360. 

No. 5. American schoolhouses. By Fletcher B. Dresslar, Professor of Philosophy 
and Education in the University of Alabama, pp.133. 

No. 6. Statistics of State universities and other institutions of higher education 
partially supported by the State, 1909-10. pp. 29. 

1911. 

No. 1. Bibliogi-aphy of science teaching, Compiled by a committee of the American 
Federation of Teachers of the Mathematical and the Natiiral Sciences, pp. 27. 

No. 2. Opportunities for graduate study in agriculture in the United States, pp. 16. 

No. 3. Agencies for the improvement orteachers in service. By William 0. Ruediger, 
Professor of Educational Psychology, George Washington University, Washington, 
D. C. pp. 157. 

No. 4. Report of the commission appointed to study the system of education in the 
public schools of Baltimore, pp.112. 

No. 5. Age and grade census of schools and colleges, a study of retardation and elimi- 
nation. By George Drayton Strayer, Professor of School Administration, Teachers 
College, Columbia University, New York City, pp.144. 

No. 6. Graduate work in mathematics in universities and in other institutions of like 
grade in the United States. Being report of Committee XII in the American 
report to the International commission on the teaching of mathematics, pp. 63. 

No. 7. Undergraduate work in mathematics in colleges of liberal arts and xmiversities. 
Being report of Committee X in the American report to the International com- 
mission on the teaching of mathematics, pp. 30. - 

No. 8. Examinations in mathematics,' other than those set by the teacher for his 
own classes. Being report of Committee VII in the American report to the Inter- 
national commission on the teaching of mathematics. 

No. 9. Mathematics in the technological schools of collegiate grade in the United 
States. Being report of Committee IX in the American report to the International 
commission on the teaching of mathematics. 

No. 10. Bibliography of education for 1909-10. pp. 166. 

No. 11. Bibliography of child study for the years 1908-9. By Louis N. Wilson, 
Librarian of Clark University, Worcester, Mass. pp.84. 

No. 12. Training of teachers of elementary and secondary mathematics. Being report 
of Committee V in the American report to the International commission on the 
teaching of mathematics, pp. 23. 

No. 13. Mathematics in the elementary schools of the United States. Being reports 
of Committees I and II in the American report to the International commission on 
the teaching of mathematics. 

No. 14. Provision for exceptional children in public schools. 



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